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Ancus Marcius
|
**Ancus Marcius** (`{{IPA|la-x-classic|ˈaŋkʊs ˈmaːrkiʊs|lang|link=yes}}`{=mediawiki}) was the legendary fourth king of Rome, who traditionally reigned 24 years. Upon the death of the previous king, Tullus Hostilius, the Roman Senate appointed an interrex, who in turn called a session of the assembly of the people who elected the new king. Ancus is said to have ruled by waging war as Romulus did, while also promoting peace and religion as Numa Pompilius did.
Ancus Marcius was believed by many Romans to have been the namesake of the Marcii, a plebeian family. `{{Coin image box 1 double
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| caption_right = '''[[Obverse and reverse|R:]]''' [[equestrian statue]] on 5 arches of [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]] ([[Aqua Marcia]])
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## Background
Ancus was the son of Marcius (himself the son of Rome\'s first *pontifex maximus* Numa Marcius) and Pompilia (daughter of Numa Pompilius). Ancus Marcius was thus the grandson of Numa and therefore a Sabine. According to Festus, Marcius was surnamed Ancus because of his crooked arm (*ancus* signifying \"bent\" in Latin).
## First acts as King {#first_acts_as_king}
According to Livy, Ancus\'s first act as king was to order the Pontifex Maximus to copy the text concerning the performance of public ceremonies of religion from the commentaries of Numa Pompilius to be displayed to the public on wooden tablets, so that the rites of religion should no longer be neglected or improperly performed. When Tullus was king, he repealed the Numa-created religious edicts that had been in place before.
## War
According to Livy, the accession of Ancus emboldened the Latin League, who assumed that the new king would follow the pious pursuit of peace adopted by his grandfather, Numa Pompilius. The Latins accordingly made an incursion on Roman lands, and gave a contemptuous reply to a Roman embassy seeking restitution for the damage. Ancus responded by declaring war on the Latins. Livy says that this event was notable as the first time that the Romans declared war by means of the rites of the fetials. Ancus Marcius marched from Rome with a newly levied army and took the Latin town of Politorium (situated near the town of Lanuvium) by storm. Its residents were removed to settle on the Aventine Hill in Rome as new citizens, following the Roman traditions from wars with the Sabines and Albans. When the other Latins subsequently occupied the empty town of Politorium, Ancus took the town again and demolished it. The Latin villages of Tellenae and Ficana were also sacked and demolished.
The war then focused on the Latin town of Medullia. The town had a strong garrison and was well fortified. Several engagements took place outside the town and the Romans were eventually victorious. Ancus returned to Rome with a large amount of loot. More Latins were brought to Rome as citizens and were settled at the foot of the Aventine near the Palatine Hill, by the temple of Murcia.
Ancus Marcius incorporated the Janiculum into the city, fortifying it with a wall and connecting it with the city by a wooden bridge across the Tiber, the Pons Sublicius. To protect the bridge from enemy attacks, Ancus had the end that was facing the Janiculum fortified. Ancus also took over Fidenea to expand Rome\'s influence across the Tiber. On the land side of the city he constructed the Fossa Quiritium, a ditch fortification. He also built Rome\'s first prison, the Mamertine prison.
He then extended the Roman territory, founding the port of Ostia, establishing salt-works around the port, and taking the Silva Maesia, an area of coastal forest north of the Tiber, from the Veientes. He expanded the temple of Jupiter Feretrius to reflect these territorial successes. According to a reconstruction of the Fasti Triumphales, Ancus Marcius celebrated at least one triumph, over the Sabines and Veientes.
## Death and successor {#death_and_successor}
Ancus Marcius is reported to have died of natural causes after a rule of 24 years. He had two sons, one of which would likely take the throne. A member of Ancus\' court, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, ensured that Ancus\' sons would be out of Rome so he could put together an election where he would gain the support of the Roman people.
Ancus Marcius was succeeded by his friend Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, who was ultimately assassinated by the sons of Ancus Marcius. Later, during the Republic and the Empire, the prominent gens Marcia claimed descent from Ancus Marcius.
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1,752 |
Andocides
|
**Andocides** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɒ|s|ɪ|d|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἀνδοκίδης*, *Andokides*; `{{citation needed span |text={{Circa|440|370 BC}} |date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki}) was a logographer (speech writer) in Ancient Greece. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the \"Alexandrian Canon\" compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BC.
## Life
Andocides was the son of Leogoras, and was born in Athens around 440 BC. He belonged to the ancient Eupatrid family of the Kerykes, who traced their lineage up to Odysseus and the god Hermes.
During his youth, Andocides seems to have been employed on various occasions as ambassador to Thessaly, Macedonia, Molossia, Thesprotia, Italy, and Sicily. Although he was frequently attacked for his political opinions, he maintained his ground until, in 415 BC, he became involved in the charge brought against Alcibiades for having profaned the mysteries and mutilated the Herms on the eve of the departure of the Athenian expedition against Sicily. It appeared particularly likely that Andocides was an accomplice in the latter of these crimes, which was believed to be a preliminary step towards overthrowing the democratic constitution, since the Herm standing close to his house in the phyle Aegeis was among the very few which had not been injured.
Andocides was accordingly seized and thrown into prison, but after some time recovered his freedom by a promise that he would become an informer and reveal the names of the real perpetrators of the crime; and on the suggestion of one Charmides or Timaeus, he mentioned four, all of whom were put to death. He is also said to have denounced his own father on the charge of profaning the mysteries, but to have rescued him again in the hour of danger - a charge he strenuously denied. But as Andocides was unable to clear himself from the charge, he was deprived of his rights as a citizen, and left Athens.
Andocides traveled about in various parts of Greece, and was chiefly engaged in commercial enterprise and in forming connections with powerful people. The means he employed to gain the friendship of powerful men were sometimes of the most disreputable kind; among which a service he rendered to a prince in Cyprus is mentioned in particular.
In 411 BC, Andocides returned to Athens on the establishment of the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred, hoping that a certain service he had rendered the Athenian ships at Samos would secure him a welcome reception. But no sooner were the oligarchs informed of the return of Andocides, than their leader Peisander had him seized, and accused him of having supported the party opposed to them at Samos. During his trial, Andocides, who perceived the exasperation prevailing against him, leaped to the altar which stood in the court, and there assumed the attitude of a supplicant. This saved his life, but he was imprisoned. Soon afterwards, however, he was set free, or escaped from prison.
Andocides then went to Cyprus, where for a time he enjoyed the friendship of Evagoras; but, by some circumstance or other, he exasperated his friend, and was consigned to prison. Here again he escaped, and after the restoration of democracy in Athens and the abolition of the Four Hundred, he ventured once more to return to Athens; but as he was still suffering under a sentence of civil disenfranchisement, he endeavored by means of bribes to persuade the prytaneis to allow him to attend the assembly of the people. The latter, however, expelled him from the city. It was on this occasion, in 411 BC, that Andocides delivered the speech still extant \"On his return\", on which he petitioned for permission to reside at Athens, but in vain. In his third exile, Andocides went to reside in Elis, and during the time of his absence from his native city, his house there was occupied by Cleophon, the leading demagogue.
Andocides remained in exile until after the overthrow of the tyranny of the Thirty by Thrasybulus, when the general amnesty then proclaimed made him hope that its benefit would be extended to him also. He himself says that he returned to Athens from Cyprus, where he claimed to have great influence and considerable property. Because of the general amnesty, he was allowed to remain at Athens, enjoyed peace for the next three years, and soon recovered an influential position. According to Lysias, it was scarcely ten days after his return that he brought an accusation against Archippus or Aristippus, which, however, he dropped on receiving a sum of money. During this period Andocides became a member of the boule, in which he appears to have possessed a great influence, as well as in the popular assembly. He was gymnasiarch at the Hephaestaea, was sent as architheorus to the Isthmian Games and Olympic Games, and was even entrusted with the office of keeper of the sacred treasury.
But in 400 BC, Callias, supported by Cephisius, Agyrrhius, Meletus, and Epichares, urged the necessity of preventing Andocides from attending the assembly, as he had never been formally freed from the civil disenfranchisement. Callias II also charged him with violating the laws respecting the temple at Eleusis. The orator pleaded his case in the oration still extant \"on the Mysteries\" (περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων), in which he argued that he had not been involved in the profanation of the mysteries or the mutilation of the herms, that he had not violated the laws of the temple at Eleusis, that anyway he had received his citizenship back as a result of the amnesty, and that Callias was really motivated by a private dispute with Andocides over inheritance. He was acquitted. After this, he again enjoyed peace until 394 BC, when he was sent as ambassador to Sparta regarding the peace to be concluded in consequence of Conon\'s victory off Cnidus. On his return, he was accused of illegal conduct during his embassy. The speech \"On the peace with the Lacedaemonians\" (περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης), which is still extant, refers to this affair. It was delivered in 393 BC (though some scholars place it in 391 BC). Andocides was found guilty, and sent into exile for the fourth time. He never returned afterwards, and seems to have died soon after this blow.
Andocides appears to have fathered no children, since he is described at the age of 70 as being childless, although the scholiast on Aristophanes mentions Antiphon as a son of Andocides. The large fortune which he had inherited from his father, or acquired in his commercial undertakings, was greatly diminished in the latter years of his life.
## Oratory
As an orator, Andocides does not appear to have been held in very high esteem by the ancients, as he is seldom mentioned, though Valerius Theon is said to have written a commentary on his orations. We do not hear of his having been trained in any of the sophistical schools of the time, and he had probably developed his talents in the practical school of the popular assembly. Hence his orations have no mannerism in them, and are really, as Plutarch says, simple and free from all rhetorical pomp and ornament.
Sometimes, however, his style is diffuse, and becomes tedious and obscure. The best among his orations is that \"on the Mysteries\"; but, for the history of the time, all are of the highest importance.
Besides the three orations already mentioned, which are undoubtedly genuine, there is a fourth against Alcibiades (κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου), said to have been delivered by Andocides during the ostracism of 415 BC; but it is probably spurious, though it appears to contain genuine historical matter. Some scholars ascribed it to Phaeax, who took part in the ostracism, according to Plutarch. But it is more likely that it is a rhetorical exercise from the early fourth century BC, since formal speeches were not delivered during ostracisms and the accusation or defence of Alcibiades was a standing rhetorical theme. Besides these four orations we possess only a few fragments and some very vague allusions to other orations.
## List of extant speeches {#list_of_extant_speeches}
### [On the Mysteries](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+1+1) (*Περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων* \"*De Mysteriis*\"). {#on_the_mysteries_de_mysteriis.}
Andocides made the speech \"On the Mysteries\" as a defense against the accusations made against him by Athens for attending the Eleusinian Mysteries without permission, as he was prohibited under Isotimides\' order. The case\'s prosecutors had insisted that Andocides be put to death. His attendance at the Eleusinian Mysteries in Eleusis around 400 BCE was the main accusation made against him. Additionally, he was charged with unlawfully placing an olive branch on the altar of the Eleusinium at Athens during the Mysteries.
The speech can be split into two parts. In the first, Andocides asserted that the decree of Isotimides had no power to prevent him from attending the Eleusinian Mysteries because he was innocent of impiety and had not confessed to it. He would go on to declare that because of alterations made to the law in 403 BCE, the decree altogether was no longer legitimate.
In the second part of the speech, he would move on to claim that his prosecutors, namely Cephisius, Meletus, Epichares and Agyrrhius, were not legitimate by making allegations against them. Andocides asserted that Cephisius, Meletus, and Epichares had also committed crimes prior to the legal revisions, exposing their hypocrisy in bringing charges against him since they would also be at risk of being prosecuted. Andocides asserts that Agyrrhius is ineligible to prosecute them for their private conflicts.
This speech was successful in persuading the jury, as Andocides was sentenced to be innocent. Gagarin and MacDowell commented on the oration, saying that while the speech itself is rather rough on its wording, it is a genuine speech of Andocides fighting for his life and was "sufficiently clear and logical".
### [On His Return](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+2+1) (*Περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ καθόδου* \"*De Reditu*\"). {#on_his_return_de_reditu.}
"On His Return" was a speech made by Andocides in an attempt to be brought back to Athen after being exiled from the city-state in 415 BCE for impious acts. Despite commonly being considered as the second work in Andocides' orations, "On His Return" precedes \"On the Mysteries" in date. Andocides tries to return to the city-state in 411 BCE. To ensure his return would be welcomed, he had obtained some Macedonian timber and sold them to the Athenian fleet stationed at Samos. However, in an interesting turn of events, Andocides' goodwill would turn against him. The Four Hundred, an oligarchy, had just come into reign from a coup in 411 BCE, they were faced with objections from the sailors at Samos, who were mostly democratic. As a result, Andocides was imprisoned by Perisander, the leader of the Four Hundred.
"On His Return" was made after the downfall of the Four Hundred, with Andocides appealing to seek forgiveness and be reaccepted into Athenian society. Experts have distinctively noted that this oration has a tone different from "On The Mysteries", in which Andocides was more prone to admit his faults and put himself at a lower light. Saying that "I stood disgraced in the eyes of the gods" and addressing his crime as "such a piece of madness". However, his efforts were to no avail, as he only was readmitted into the Athenian society upon "On The Mysteries".
### [On the Peace with Sparta](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+3+1) (*Περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης* \"*De Pace*\"). {#on_the_peace_with_sparta_de_pace.}
"On the Peace with Sparta" was given for advocating the acceptance of the terms of peace offered by Sparta during the Corinthian War between Sparta and a coalition consisting of the city-states Athens, Boeotia, Corinth and Argos. Andocides was selected as one of the four delegates that represented Athens in the negotiation of peace between them and Sparta. The delegation were given the authority to conclude the treaty in Sparta, Considering that Andocides was just reaccepted into Athens by "On The Mysteries" in 403 BCE. The delegation shows that Andocides had gained considerable popularity among the Athenians within eight years upon his return. Still, with the authority given, the team of delegates decided to bring the terms back to Athens for approval. The speech gives the historical context behind the offer of truce, and gives a list of arguments for the acceptance of Sparta\'s terms for peace. The terms that were given were closely related to the Spartan victory in the Peloponnesian War, after which rather unfair terms had been imposed on the Athenians by Sparta for peace. They include:
1. Athens would destroy Athenian town walls
2. Athens would give up the Delian League
3. Athens would shrink the Athenian navy except a mere twelve ships
4. Athens would Install the Thirty, an oppressive oligarchic regime
The peace terms offered by Sparta were mostly responses to the terms listed above, they include:
1. Athens would be allowed to rebuild their town walls
2. Athens would be able to expand their navy and control three islands at the north of the Aegean sea
3. Greeks cities would be independent, except those in Asia, which would be under Persian control.
In "On the Peace with Sparta", Andocides argues that such terms were satisfactory for the Athenian side, claiming that "it is better to make peace on fair terms than to continue fighting". However, the speech would fail to convince the Athenians, partly because of Andocides' aristocratic origins and oligarchic political stance. Andocides would flee from Athens and be exiled again for allegedly accepting bribes and making false reports. There is no information on his life after the exile.
Still, Gagarin and MacDowell commented that Andocides speaks like an professional orator in this speech, this seems to imply that he has received extensive training and gained considerable experience on public speaking.
### [Against Alcibiades](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+4+1) (*Κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου* \"*Contra Alcibiadem*\")*.* {#against_alcibiades_contra_alcibiadem.}
This oration criticises Alcibiades for an ostracism which he and the speaker were in danger of falling victim to. An ostracism was a method of banishing a citizen for a decade. The oration claims that Alcibiades bought a female slave from one of the captives after the fall of Melos.
The speaker bashes Alcibiades for his questionable morals and acts, as shown in he recounting Alcibiades' actions during the Olympic games in 416 BCE, " Alcibiades will not endure it (defeat in Olympia) even at the hands of his fellow-citizens" and that "he does not treat his own fellow Athenians as his equals, but robs them, strikes them, throws them into prison, and extorts money from them".
However, this speech fails to meet its goal of ostracizing Alcibiades, as followers of him and Nicas rallied support for the two and instead urged people to vote against Hyperbolus, a less politically significant figure. This strategy is successful as Hyperbolus was banished instead of the two. This would mark the fall of the ostracism system, as it was controversial among the public that it could be manipulated in such a way, the system would be abandoned soon after this case.
Although attributed to Andocides, it has been widely agreed upon that Andocides was not the one who made this speech. For the reason that the author of the speech lacks the correct understanding of the procedures of an ostracism and Athenian politics in general, the style of the speech was also significantly different than that of Andocides. One popular theory of the authorship of the speech was that it was written by Phaeax, another orator in Athens at the time.
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1,756 |
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
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***An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding*** is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in English in 1748 under the title *Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding* until a 1757 edition came up with the now-familiar name. It was a revision of an earlier effort, Hume\'s *A Treatise of Human Nature*, published anonymously in London in 1739--40. Hume was disappointed with the reception of the *Treatise*, which \"fell dead-born from the press,\" as he put it, and so tried again to disseminate his more developed ideas to the public by writing a shorter and more polemical work.
The end product of his labours was the *Enquiry*. The *Enquiry* dispensed with much of the material from the *Treatise*, in favor of clarifying and emphasizing its most important aspects. For example, Hume\'s views on personal identity do not appear. However, more vital propositions, such as Hume\'s argument for the role of habit in a theory of knowledge, are retained.
This book has proven highly influential, both in the years that would immediately follow and today. Immanuel Kant points to it as the book which woke him from his self-described \"dogmatic slumber.\" The *Enquiry* is widely regarded as a classic in modern philosophical literature.
## Content
The argument of the *Enquiry* proceeds by a series of incremental steps, separated into chapters which logically succeed one another. After expounding his epistemology, Hume explains how to apply his principles to specific topics.
### 1. Of the different species of philosophy {#of_the_different_species_of_philosophy}
In the first section of the Enquiry, Hume provides a rough introduction to philosophy as a whole. For Hume, philosophy can be split into two general parts: natural philosophy and the philosophy of human nature (or, as he calls it, \"moral philosophy\"). The latter investigates both actions and thoughts. He emphasizes in this section, by way of warning, that philosophers with nuanced thoughts will likely be cast aside in favor of those whose conclusions more intuitively match popular opinion. However, he insists, precision helps art and craft of all kinds, including the craft of philosophy.
### 2. Of the origin of ideas {#of_the_origin_of_ideas}
Next, Hume discusses the distinction between impressions and ideas. By \"impressions\", he means sensations, while by \"ideas\", he means memories and imaginings. According to Hume, the difference between the two is that ideas are less *vivacious* than impressions. For example, the idea of the taste of an orange is far inferior to the impression (or sensation) of actually eating one. Writing within the tradition of empiricism, he argues that impressions are the source of all ideas.
Hume accepts that ideas may be either the product of mere sensation or of the imagination working in conjunction with sensation. According to Hume, the creative faculty makes use of (at least) four mental operations that produce imaginings out of sense-impressions. These operations are *compounding* (or the addition of one idea onto another, such as a horn on a horse to create a unicorn); *transposing* (or the substitution of one part of a thing with the part from another, such as with the body of a man upon a horse to make a centaur); *augmenting* (as with the case of a giant, whose size has been augmented); and *diminishing* (as with Lilliputians, whose size has been diminished). (Hume 1974:317) In a later chapter, he also mentions the operations of *mixing*, *separating*, and *dividing*. (Hume 1974:340)
However, Hume admits that there is one objection to his account: the problem of *\"The Missing Shade of Blue\"*. In this thought-experiment, he asks us to imagine a man who has experienced every shade of blue except for one (see Fig. 1). He predicts that this man will be able to divine the color of this particular shade of blue, despite the fact that he has never experienced it. This seems to pose a serious problem for the empirical account, though Hume brushes it aside as an exceptional case by stating that one may experience a novel idea that itself is derived from combinations of previous impressions. (Hume 1974:319)
### 3. Of the association of ideas {#of_the_association_of_ideas}
In this chapter, Hume discusses how thoughts tend to come in sequences, as in trains of thought. He explains that there are at least three kinds of associations between ideas: *resemblance*, *contiguity* in space-time, and *cause-and-effect*. He argues that there must be some *universal principle* that must account for the various sorts of connections that exist between ideas. However, he does not immediately show what this principle might be. (Hume 1974:320-321)
### 4. Sceptical doubts concerning the operations of the understanding (in two parts) {#sceptical_doubts_concerning_the_operations_of_the_understanding_in_two_parts}
In the first part, Hume discusses how the objects of inquiry are either \"relations of ideas\" or \"matters of fact\", which is roughly the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions. The former, he tells the reader, are proved by demonstration, while the latter are given through experience. (Hume 1974:322) In explaining how matters of fact are entirely a product of experience, he dismisses the notion that they may be arrived at through *a priori* reasoning. For Hume, every effect only follows its cause arbitrarily---they are entirely distinct from one another. (Hume 1974:324)
In part two, Hume inquires into how anyone can justifiably believe that experience yields any conclusions about the world:
:
: \"When it is asked, *What is the nature of all our reasonings concerning matter of fact?* the proper answer seems to be, that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. When again it is asked, *What is the foundation of all our reasonings and conclusions concerning that relation?* it may be replied in one word, *experience*. But if we still carry on our sifting humor, and ask, *What is the foundation of all conclusions from experience?* this implies a new question, which may be of more difficult solution and explication.\" (Hume 1974:328)
He shows how a satisfying argument for the validity of experience can be based neither on demonstration (since \"it implies no contradiction that the course of nature may change\") nor experience (since that would be a circular argument). (Hume 1974:330-332) Here he is describing what would become known as the problem of induction.
### 5. Sceptical solution of these doubts (in two parts) {#sceptical_solution_of_these_doubts_in_two_parts}
According to Hume, we assume that experience tells us something about the world because of *habit or custom*, which human nature forces us to take seriously. This is also, presumably, the \"principle\" that organizes the connections between ideas. Indeed, one of the many famous passages of the *Enquiry* is on the topic of the incorrigibility of human custom. In Section XII, *Of the academical or sceptical philosophy*, Hume will argue,
:
: *\"The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of skepticism is action, and employment, and the occupations of common life. These principles may flourish and triumph in the schools; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to refute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish like smoke, and leave the most determined skeptic in the same condition as other mortals.\"* (Hume 1974:425)
In the second part, he provides an account of beliefs. He explains that the difference between belief and fiction is that the former produces a certain feeling of confidence which the latter doesn\'t. (Hume 1974:340)
### 6. Of probability {#of_probability}
This short chapter begins with the notions of probability and chance. For him, \"probability\" means a *higher chance* of occurring, and brings about a higher degree of subjective expectation in the viewer. By \"chance\", he means all those particular comprehensible events which the viewer considers possible in accord with the viewer\'s experience. However, further experience takes these equal chances, and forces the imagination to observe that certain chances arise more frequently than others. These gentle forces upon the imagination cause the viewer to have strong beliefs in outcomes. This effect may be understood as another case of *custom or habit* taking past experience and using it to predict the future. (Hume 1974:346-348)
### 7. Of the idea of necessary connection (in two parts) {#of_the_idea_of_necessary_connection_in_two_parts}
By \"necessary connection\", Hume means the power or force which necessarily ties one idea to another. He rejects the notion that any sensible qualities are necessarily conjoined, since that would mean we could know something prior to experience. Unlike his predecessors, Berkeley and Locke, Hume rejects the idea that volitions or impulses of the will may be inferred to necessarily connect to the actions they produce by way of some sense of the power of the will. He reasons that, 1. if we knew the nature of this power, then the mind-body divide would seem totally unmysterious to us; 2. if we had immediate knowledge of this mysterious power, then we would be able to intuitively explain why it is that we can control some parts of our bodies (e.g., our hands or tongues), and not others (e.g., the liver or heart); 3. we have no immediate knowledge of the powers which allow an impulse of volition to create an action (e.g., of the \"muscles, and nerves, and animal spirits\" which are the immediate cause of an action). (Hume 1974:353-354) He produces like arguments against the notion that we have knowledge of these powers as they affect the mind alone. (Hume 1974:355-356) He also argues in brief against the idea that causes are mere occasions of the will of some god(s), a view associated with the philosopher Nicolas Malebranche. (Hume 1974:356-359)
Having dispensed with these alternative explanations, he identifies the source of our knowledge of necessary connections as arising out of *observation of constant conjunction of certain impressions across many instances*. In this way, people know of necessity through rigorous custom or habit, and not from any immediate knowledge of the powers of the will. (Hume 1974:361)
### 8. Of liberty and necessity (in two parts) {#of_liberty_and_necessity_in_two_parts}
Here Hume tackles the problem of how liberty may be reconciled with metaphysical necessity (otherwise known as a compatibilist formulation of free will). Hume believes that all disputes on the subject have been merely verbal arguments---that is to say, arguments which are based on a lack of prior agreement on definitions. He first shows that it is clear that most events are deterministic, but human actions are more controversial. However, he thinks that these too occur out of necessity since an outside observer can see the same regularity that he would in a purely physical system. To show the compatibility of necessity and liberty, Hume defines liberty as the ability to act on the basis of one\'s will e.g. the capacity to will one\'s actions but not to will one\'s will. He then shows (quite briefly) how determinism and free will are compatible notions, and have no bad consequences on ethics or moral life.
### 9. Of the reason of animals {#of_the_reason_of_animals}
Hume insists that the conclusions of the Enquiry will be very powerful if they can be shown to apply to animals and not just humans. He believed that animals were able to infer the relation between cause and effect in the same way that humans do: through learned expectations. (Hume 1974:384) He also notes that this \"inferential\" ability that animals have is not through reason, but custom alone. Hume concludes that there is an innate faculty of instincts which both beasts and humans share, namely, the ability to reason experimentally (through custom). Nevertheless, he admits, humans and animals differ in mental faculties in a number of ways, including: differences in memory and attention, inferential abilities, ability to make deductions in a long chain, ability to grasp ideas more or less clearly, the human capacity to worry about conflating unrelated circumstances, a sagely prudence which arrests generalizations, a capacity for a greater inner library of analogies to reason with, an ability to detach oneself and scrap one\'s own biases, and an ability to converse through language (and thus gain from the experience of others\' testimonies). (Hume 1974:385, footnote 17.)
### 10. Of miracles (in two parts) {#of_miracles_in_two_parts}
The next topic which Hume strives to give treatment is that of the reliability of human testimony, and of the role that testimony plays a part in epistemology. This was not an idle concern for Hume. Depending on its outcome, the entire treatment would give the epistemologist a degree of certitude in the treatment of miracles.
True to his empirical thesis, Hume tells the reader that, though testimony does have some force, it is never quite as powerful as the direct evidence of the senses. That said, he provides some reasons why we may have a basis for trust in the testimony of persons: because a) human memory can be relatively tenacious; and b) because people are inclined to tell the truth, and ashamed of telling falsities. Needless to say, these reasons are only to be trusted to the extent that they conform to experience. (Hume 1974:389)
And there are a number of reasons to be skeptical of human testimony, also based on experience. If a) testimonies conflict one another, b) there are a small number of witnesses, c) the speaker has no integrity, d) the speaker is overly hesitant or bold, or e) the speaker is known to have motives for lying, then the epistemologist has reason to be skeptical of the speaker\'s claims. (Hume 1974:390)
There is one final criterion that Hume thinks gives us warrant to doubt any given testimony, and that is f) if the propositions being communicated are miraculous. Hume understands a miracle to be any event which contradicts the laws of nature. He argues that the laws of nature have an overwhelming body of evidence behind them, and are so well demonstrated to everyone\'s experience, that any deviation from those laws necessarily flies in the face of all evidence. (Hume 1974:391-392)
Moreover, he stresses that talk of the miraculous has no surface validity, for four reasons. First, he explains that in all of history there has never been a miracle which was attested to by a wide body of disinterested experts. Second, he notes that human beings delight in a sense of wonder, and this provides a villain with an opportunity to manipulate others. Third, he thinks that those who hold onto the miraculous have tended towards barbarism. Finally, since testimonies tend to conflict with one another when it comes to the miraculous---that is, one man\'s religious miracle may be contradicted by another man\'s miracle---any testimony relating to the fantastic is self-denunciating. (Hume 1974:393-398)
Still, Hume takes care to warn that historians are generally to be trusted with confidence, so long as their reports on facts are extensive and uniform. However, he seems to suggest that historians are as fallible at interpreting the facts as the rest of humanity. Thus, if every historian were to claim that there was a solar eclipse in the year 1600, then though we might at first naively regard that as in violation of natural laws, we\'d come to accept it as a fact. But if every historian were to assert that Queen Elizabeth was observed walking around happy and healthy after her funeral, and then interpreted that to mean that they had risen from the dead, then we\'d have reason to appeal to natural laws in order to dispute their interpretation. (Hume 1974:400-402)
### 11. Of a particular providence and of a future state {#of_a_particular_providence_and_of_a_future_state}
Hume continues his application of epistemology to theology by an extended discussion on heaven and hell. The brunt of this chapter allegedly narrates the opinions, not of Hume, but of one of Hume\'s anonymous friends, who again presents them in an imagined speech by the philosopher Epicurus. His friend argues that, though it is possible to trace a cause from an effect, it is not possible to infer unseen effects from a cause thus traced. The friend insists, then, that even though we might postulate that there is a first cause behind all things---God---we can\'t infer anything about the afterlife, because we don\'t know anything of the afterlife from experience, and we can\'t infer it from the existence of God. (Hume 1974:408)
Hume offers his friend an objection: if we see an unfinished building, then can\'t we infer that it has been created by humans with certain intentions, and that it will be finished in the future? His friend concurs, but indicates that there is a relevant disanalogy that we can\'t pretend to know the contents of the mind of God, while we can know the designs of other humans. Hume seems essentially persuaded by his friend\'s reasoning. (Hume 1974:412-414)
### 12. Of the academical or skeptical philosophy (in three parts) {#of_the_academical_or_skeptical_philosophy_in_three_parts}
The first section of the last chapter is well organized as an outline of various skeptical arguments. The treatment includes the arguments of atheism, Cartesian skepticism, \"light\" skepticism, and rationalist critiques of empiricism. Hume shows that even light skepticism leads to crushing doubts about the world which - while they ultimately are philosophically justifiable - may only be combated through the non-philosophical adherence to custom or habit. He ends the section with his own reservations towards Cartesian and Lockean epistemologies.
In the second section he returns to the topic of hard skepticism by sharply denouncing it.
:
: \"For here is the chief and most confounding objection to *excessive* skepticism, that no durable good can ever result from it; while it remains in its full force and vigor. We need only ask such a skeptic, *What his meaning is? And what he proposes by all these curious researches?* He is immediately at a loss, and knows not what to answer\... a Pyrrhonian cannot expect, that his philosophy will have any constant influence on the mind: or if it had, that its influence would be beneficial to society. On the contrary, he must acknowledge, if he will acknowledge anything, that all human life must perish, were his principles universally and steadily to prevail.\" (Hume 1974:426)
He concludes the volume by setting out the limits of knowledge once and for all. \"*When we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we make? If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask,*Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?*No.*Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?*No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.*\"
## Critiques and rejoinders {#critiques_and_rejoinders}
The criteria Hume lists in his examination of the validity of human testimony are roughly upheld in modern social psychology, under the rubric of the communication-persuasion paradigm. Supporting literature includes: the work of social impact theory, which discusses persuasion in part through the number of persons engaging in influence; as well as studies made on the relative influence of communicator credibility in different kinds of persuasion; and examinations of the trustworthiness of the speaker.
The \"custom\" view of learning can in many ways be likened to associationist psychology. This point of view has been subject to severe criticism in the research of the 20th century. Still, testing on the subject has been somewhat divided. Testing on certain animals like cats have concluded that they do not possess any faculty which allow their minds to grasp an insight into cause and effect. However, it has been shown that some animals, like chimpanzees, were able to generate creative plans of action to achieve their goals, and thus would seem to have a causal insight which transcends mere custom.
## Legacy
Albert Einstein was a great admirer of Hume and remarked in a letter to Moritz Schlick that he had read Hume\'s book and the works of Ernst Mach \"with eagerness and admiration shortly before finding relativity theory\" and that \"very possibly, I wouldn\'t have come to the solution without those philosophical studies\".
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1,758 |
André de Longjumeau
|
**André de Longjumeau** (also known as **Andrew of Longjumeau** in English) was a French diplomat and Dominican missionary and one of the most active Occidental diplomats in the East in the 13th century. He led two embassies to the Mongols: the first carried letters from Pope Innocent IV and the second bore gifts and letters from Louis IX of France to Güyük Khan. Well acquainted with the Middle East, he spoke Arabic and \"Chaldean\" (thought to be either Syriac or Persian).
## Mission for the holy Crown of Thorns {#mission_for_the_holy_crown_of_thorns}
André\'s first mission to the East was when he was asked by the French king Louis IX to go to Constantinople to obtain the crown of thorns that had been sold to him by the Latin emperor Baldwin II in 1238, who was anxious to obtain support for his empire. André was accompanied on this mission by a Dominican friar, brother Jacques.
## Papal mission to the Mongols (1245--1247) {#papal_mission_to_the_mongols_12451247}
André of Longjumeau led one of four missions dispatched to the Mongols by Pope Innocent IV. He left Lyon in the spring of 1245 for the Levant. He visited Muslim principalities in Syria and representatives of the Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church in Seljuk Persia, finally delivering the papal correspondence to a Mongol general near Tabriz. In Tabriz, André de Longjumeau met with a monk from the Far East named Simeon Rabban Ata, who had been put in charge by the Khan of protecting Christians in the Middle East.
## Second mission to the Mongols (1249--1251) {#second_mission_to_the_mongols_12491251}
At the Mongol camp near Kars, André had met a certain David, who in December 1248 appeared at the court of King Louis IX of France, who was preparing his armies in the allied Kingdom of Cyprus. André, who was now with the French King, interpreted David\'s words as a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general Eljigidei, and a proposal of a joint attack on Ayyubid Syria. In reply to this, the French sovereign dispatched André as his ambassador to Güyük Khan. Longjumeau went with his brother Jacques (also a Dominican) and several others -- John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert \"Le Sommelier\", Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy.
The party set out on 16 February 1249, with letters from King Louis and the papal legate, and lavish presents, including a chapel tent lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and thence traveled for a year to the Khan\'s court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and certainly through Taraz, north-east of Tashkent.
Upon arrival at the supreme Mongol court -- either that on the Emil River (near Lake Alakol and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the Altai Mountains), or more probably at or near Karakorum itself, southwest of Lake Baikal -- André found Güyük Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu Khan\'s agents. The regent Oghul Qaimish, Güyük Khan\'s widow (the \"Camus\" of William of Rubruck), seems to have received him with presents and a dismissive letter for Louis IX. It is certain that before the friar had left \"Tartary\", Möngke, Güyük\'s successor, had been elected khagan.
André\'s report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1251 at Caesarea Palaestina, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols\' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader Genghis Khan with the mythical Prester John, and in the supposed location of the Mongols\' homeland, close to the prison of Gog and Magog. On the other hand, the envoy\'s account of Mongol customs is fairly accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host) are likely factual.
Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations that other historians record in detail. He found Christian prisoners from Germany in the heart of \"Tartary\" at Taraz and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Genghis Khan, gifts which were treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behavior, and the language of the letter with which André reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says Jean de Joinville, \"se repenti fort\" (\"felt very sorry\").
## Death
The date and location of André\'s death is unknown.
We only know of André through references in other writers: see especially William of Rubruck\'s in *Recueil de voyages*, iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254--235; William of Nangis in *Recueil des historiens des Gaules*, xx. 359--367; Rémusat, *Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens... avec les... Mongols* (1822, etc.), p. 52.
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Andriscus
|
**Andriscus** (*Ἀνδρίσκος*, *Andrískos*; `{{fl.}}`{=mediawiki} 154/153 BC -- 146 BC), also often referenced as **Pseudo-Philip**, was a Greek pretender who became the last independent king of Macedon in 149 BC as **Philip VI** (*Φίλιππος*, *Philipos*), based on his claim of being Philip, a now-obscure son of the last legitimate Macedonian king, Perseus. His reign lasted just one year and was toppled by the Roman Republic during the Fourth Macedonian War.
Ancient sources generally agree that he was originally a fuller from Adramyttium in Aeolis in western Anatolia. Around 153 BC, his ancestry was supposedly revealed to him, upon which he travelled to the court of his claimed uncle, the Seleucid monarch Demetrius I Soter, to request assistance in claiming his throne. Demetrius refused and had him sent to Rome, where he was judged harmless and exiled to a city in Italy; he managed to escape, and after gathering support, primarily from Thrace, he launched an invasion of Macedon, defeating Rome\'s clients and establishing his rule as king. The Romans naturally reacted militarily, triggering war; after some initial successes, Andriscus was defeated and captured by the praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, who subdued Macedon once again.
He was imprisoned for two years before being paraded in Metellus\' triumph in 146 BC, after which he was executed. In the aftermath of his revolt, the Romans established the Roman province of Macedonia, ending Macedonian independence and establishing a permanent presence in the region.
## Origins and early life {#origins_and_early_life}
Details of his origins are vague and sometimes conflicting, though it is generally believed that he was a fuller from Adramyttium in Aeolis in western Anatolia. His exact date of birth is unknown, though according to his own story, he was \"of maturity\" when he made his claims of royalty in 154 BC, and had been raised by a Cretan in Adramyttium.
By his own claims, he was educated at Adramyttium until adolescence, until the Cretan died, after which he was raised with his foster mother. Upon reaching maturity, his mother (or foster mother, according to his claim) gave him a sealed parchment that was supposedly written by Perseus himself, along with the knowledge of the location of two hidden treasures, at Amphipolis and Thessalonica; he would later use these to advance his claims. Ancient sources are unanimous in calling him an impostor and dismiss the story as false; Niese suggests that there is a possibility of his claims being true, but generally agrees that he was a pretender; his main advantage in his claims was his close resemblance to Perseus.
Around 154/153 BC, he left Pergamon for Syria, where he declared his claim to be the illegitimate son of Perseus by a concubine. According to his own account, it was due to his mother (or foster mother) urging him to leave Pergamon to avoid the wrath of the pro-Roman Eumenes II.
## Claiming the throne {#claiming_the_throne}
### In Syria {#in_syria}
He first staked his claim in Syria. Livy and Cassius Dio write that he simply went from Pergamon to Syria and directly staked his claim before the Seleucid monarch, Demetrius I Soter. Diodorus Siculus offers a different account. According to him, Andriscus was already a mercenary in Demetrius\' army. Due to his resemblance to the former Macedonian king, his comrades started jokingly calling him \"son of Perseus\"; these jokes soon began becoming serious suspicions, and at one point, Andriscus himself decided to seize the opportunity and claimed that he was indeed the son of Perseus. Niese attempts to reconcile both accounts, suggesting that he might have travelled to Syria and then enlisted as a mercenary before staking his claim.
He appealed to the king to help him win back his \"ancestral\" throne, and found great popular support among the Seleucid populace, to the extent that there were riots in the capital, Antioch. Large segments of the Seleucid population were of Macedonian descent, nurturing strong anti-Roman sentiment since the Roman conquest of Macedon in the Third Macedonian War; they were eager to help the claimant.`{{refn|group=Note|Inviting Greek and Macedonian settlers to the Seleucid realm, and promoting the Hellenization of the realm, was a common policy of the Seleucids; this was the reason for large populations of Macedonian and Greek descent.<ref name="Steven C. Hause, William S. Maltby 2004 76">{{Cite book |last1=Steven C. Hause |url=https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus |title=Western civilization: a history of European society |last2=William S. Maltby |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-534-62164-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus/page/76 76] |quote=The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by immigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Victor, Royce M. 2010 55">{{Cite book |last=Victor, Royce M. |title=Colonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-567-24719-3 |page=55 |quote=Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed.}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} They proceeded to such an extent that there were even calls for deposing the king if he did not help the pretender. Unmoved, or perhaps frightened, Demetrius had Andriscus arrested and sent to Rome.
### In Rome {#in_rome}
In Rome, he was brought before the Senate, where Dio writes that he stood \"in general contempt\" due to what was perceived to be his ordinary nature and transparently false claim. The Romans believed his claim to be fake, because the real Philip had died at Alba Fucens two years after his father Perseus. Considering him harmless, they simply exiled him to an Italian city, but he managed to escape; fleeing Italy, he went to the Greek world, to the city of Miletus.
### Gaining support {#gaining_support}
In Miletus, he tried to advance his claims further, attracting significant attention and sympathy. When the leaders of Miletus learned about this, they arrested him and sought advice from visiting Roman envoys on what to do with him; the envoys were contemptuous of the pretender and told the Miletans he was safe to release. He continued his travels through Ionia, meeting former acquaintances of Perseus and gaining an audience with Kallipa, a former concubine of Perseus who was now married to Athenaios, brother of the Pergamene king Attalus II Philadelphus. Being a Macedonian by birth, and due to her former connections to the Antigonids, she accepted his claim and agreed to help him, giving him money and slaves, and probably recommending that he travel to Thrace, where he would find a following.
He was also received favourably in Byzantium. He finally arrived in Thrace, where he met Teres III, who had married the granddaughter of Perseus and was the son of Cotys IV, who had once been an ally of Perseus. Teres and the other Thracian chieftains, especially a certain Barsabas, received him enthusiastically; he held a coronation ceremony at Teres\' court, was given a few hundred Thracian troops, and set off on his campaign.
## Conquest of Macedon {#conquest_of_macedon}
His first attempt to invade was unsuccessful, and he initially did not inspire much enthusiasm among the Macedonians; this made the Romans complacent about the pretender. However, he soon managed to encounter a force of Rome\'s Macedonian client republics, defeating them in Odomantice; he then invaded Macedon proper, defeating Rome\'s clients on the banks of the Strymon river. Amidst popular acclaim, he crowned himself king at the old Macedonian capital of Pella in 150/149 BC.
### Popular support {#popular_support}
Although the Macedonians\' initial attitude had been lukewarm, his successes won him popularity and widespread support in Macedon. Anti-Roman sentiment was common in Macedon; the populace was obliging in overthrowing the old regime. Support for Andriscus was not uniform --- there was significantly more hesitation among the gentry and upper classes, and somewhat more enthusiasm among the lower classes --- but the popular mood was largely in his favour. His claims were bolstered by his correct prediction of the locations of two treasures, which he claimed were specified in the \"sealed writing\" that had been handed to his caretakers by Perseus, and had later been given to him. Even if there were apprehensions about the veracity of his claim, Niese notes that \"one liked to believe what one wished; the re-establishment of Macedonia enabled liberation from the burden of Roman rule. The longer these burdens had been borne, the happier they \[the Macedonians\] were at the prospect of Macedonia under a king restored from the old lineage.\"
However, it has also been suggested that the extent of his support may not have been as widespread as often believed, and that a significant amount of the Macedonian populace remained pro-republican and pro-Roman. The relative lack of reprisals towards Macedon after his defeat, as compared to the destructions of Corinth and Carthage in the same period, has been suggested as evidence for this theory.
## Reign
### Military campaigns {#military_campaigns}
Andriscus\' reign was defined to a significant degree by his military campaigns, due to his being in a constant state of war with Rome. After his conquest of the Kingdom, he enlarged the army and began campaigns to conquer Thessaly, a key part of the realm of the old Antigonids. Initial resistance to him were from *ad hoc* forces of Roman allies in Greece, a few Roman units and legates in the region and some resistance from the remnants of Rome\'s client republics in Macedon, some elements of which seem to have survived for some time into his reign. Soon, however, the Romans sent a legion under the praetor Publius Juventius Thalna to defeat the pretender.
Thalna, however, appears to have underestimated Andriscus\' strength, not taking into account the fact that the king\'s army had grown dramatically since his enthronement. Andriscus attacked and fought him at an unspecified location in Thessaly (Dio gives it as \"near the borders of Macedon\"); details of the engagement are scarce, but Thalna was killed and his forces almost annihilated. It was the worst defeat Rome would suffer at the hands of the Macedonians; Florus remarks on the irony of how \"they that were invincible against real kings, were defeated by this imaginary and pretended king\". The victory greatly increased the king\'s prestige; he obtained an alliance with Carthage, and his domestic popularity was increased dramatically, allowing him to stamp out republican resistance and conquer Thessaly.
### Foreign policy {#foreign_policy}
At first, Andriscus attempted to negotiate his position with Rome, but when it became clear that they would not recognize his throne, he embarked on a strongly anti-Roman policy, He continued to cultivate his relations with his Thracian allies, to whom he owed his throne; they would continue to provide significant forces for him during his reign.
Foreign interest in relations with him increased dramatically after his victory over Thalna; as mentioned before, Carthage, which was under attack from Rome in the Third Punic War, allied itself to him and promised him money and ships, though these could not be sent before his ultimate defeat. Significant sympathy, possibly cultivated to a degree by him, arose in Greece; however, the Achaean League remained pro-Roman and continued to resist and fight him. King Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon remained staunchly pro-Roman; the Pergamenes were terrified of the prospect of a revived and strong Macedonia on their doorstep.
### Domestic policy {#domestic_policy}
Domestically, Andriscus implemented a strongly anti-Roman and anti-Republican policy. Ancient historians interpreted this as his cruelty and tyranny; it has been suggested that these were simply manifestations of his anti-Roman policy and his persecutions of his opponents, including pro-Roman republicans.
At the same time, it is also possible that he was indeed tyrannical. His persecutions increased significantly after his victory over Thalna, costing him significant popularity; this would have dire consequences for him later.
### Coinage
The extent and nature of Andriscus\' coinage is a matter of debate. It has been suggested that many of his coins were overstrikes of previous Antigonid, republican and Roman coinage. He issued a very small amount of silver drachmae, on which he pictured himself as a Hellenistic king, and added Herakles on the reverse. Only three coins of Andriscus are known, two of which are overstruck, one on a drachm of the Thessalian League, the other on a Roman denarius. It is therefore possible that he also used the denarii he seized as booty after his victory against Thalna to mint his own coins. The coins are also of poor quality, due to the short duration of his reign, the need to reuse old dies and the need to quickly produce wartime coinage.
Some non-royal coinage has also been discovered and dated to the period of his reign, possibly struck by the remnants of the pro-Roman republics. It has also been suggested that the king was more liberal than implied by the sources, and allowed some degree of independent coinage.
## Downfall and death {#downfall_and_death}
Thalna\'s defeat shook Roman prestige in the East, and made the Senate realize the full significance of the revolt. They organized a full consular army of two legions under praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus, to defeat Andriscus and check, if not quell, his uprising. Arriving in Greece in 148 BC, Metellus marched along the Thessalian coast in a combined land and sea advance, while the allied Pergamene fleet threatened the coastal district of northern Macedonia. To protect himself against both offensives, Andriscus took up a defensive position with his main army at Pydna, where Metellus engaged him in battle. In the ensuing Battle of Pydna, Andrisus was decisively defeated. His harsh persecutions during his reign now showed their consequences; this single battle was enough to make him lose control of Macedon, as the people submitted to Metellus. He was forced to flee to Thrace, his original base of support, and began organizing a new army; however, Metellus pursued him swiftly and routed his forces before he could prepare them. Andriscus then fled to the Thracian princeling Byzes; however, Metellus managed to persuade the latter into becoming a Roman ally and handing Andriscus over as a prisoner, ending his reign.
He remained a prisoner over the next two years, while Metellus subdued any remaining Macedonian resistance, organized Macedon as a province and settled the Achaean War of 146 BC. When Metellus returned to Rome in 146 BC, he received the agnomen *Macedonicus* for his victory and was granted a triumph. Andriscus was brought in chains and paraded in the triumph, and later executed --- the last king to reign over Macedon.
## Assessment and legacy {#assessment_and_legacy}
Ancient sources are extremely hostile, not only to the origins and claims, but also of the character of Andriscus --- Diodorus calls him \"shot through with cruelty, greed and every base quality\"; Dio and Livy call him \"a man of the lowest kind\". They also describe him as cruel and tyrannical; accusations of tyranny probably reflect his harsh persecutions of pro-Roman and pro-republican elements in Macedon. At the same time, it is possible that he was indeed tyrannical, especially after his victory over Thalna, and perpetrated acts of terrorism and repression against his subjects.
His main legacy was that in the aftermath of his revolt, the Romans understood the strength of anti-Roman feeling that had arisen in Macedon, and realized that the old administration could not be sustained --- a thorough reorganization was necessary. Another reason why reorganization was necessary was that Andriscus\' persecutions had killed many pro-Roman republicans and thoroughly disrupted the old administrative structure; it would be difficult to re-establish it. Therefore, the Senate made Macedon a Roman province, with Metellus as its first governor.
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Andronikos II Palaiologos
|
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Andronikos I Komnenos
|
**Andronikos I Komnenos** (*Andrónikos Komnēnós*; `{{c.|1118/1120|lk=no}}`{=mediawiki} -- 12 September 1185), Latinized as **Andronicus I Comnenus**, was Byzantine emperor from 1183 to 1185. A nephew of John II Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1118--1143), Andronikos rose to fame in the reign of his cousin Manuel I Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1143--1180), during which his life was marked by political failures, adventures, scandalous romances, and rivalry with the emperor.
After Manuel\'s death in 1180, the elderly Andronikos rose to prominence as the accession of the young Alexios II Komnenos led to power struggles in Constantinople. In 1182, Andronikos seized power in the capital, ostensibly as a guardian of the young emperor. Andronikos swiftly and ruthlessly eliminated his political rivals, including Alexios II\'s mother and regent, Maria of Antioch. In September 1183, Andronikos was crowned as co-emperor and had Alexios murdered, assuming power in his own name. Andronikos staunchly opposed the powerful Byzantine aristocracy and enacted brutal measures to curb their influence. Although he faced several revolts and the empire became increasingly unstable, his reforms had a favorable effect on the common citizenry. The capture of Thessaloniki by William II of Sicily in 1185 turned the people of Constantinople against Andronikos, who was captured and brutally murdered.
Andronikos was the last Byzantine emperor of the Komnenos dynasty (1081--1185). He was vilified as a tyrant by later Byzantine writers, with one historian calling him \"**Misophaes**\" (*μισοφαής*, `{{lit|hater of sunlight}}`{=mediawiki}) in reference to the great number of enemies he had blinded. The anti-aristocratic policies pursued by Andronikos destroyed the Komnenian system implemented by his predecessors. His reforms and policies were reversed by the succeeding Angelos dynasty (1185--1204), which contributed to the collapse of imperial central authority. When the Byzantine Empire was temporarily overthrown in the Fourth Crusade (1204), Andronikos\' descendants established the Empire of Trebizond, where the Komnenoi continued to rule until 1461.
## Early life and character {#early_life_and_character}
Andronikos Komnenos was born in c. 1118--1120, the son of the *sebastokrator* Isaac Komnenos and his wife Irene. Andronikos had three siblings: the older brother John and two older sisters, one of which was named Anna. Andronikos was the nephew of the reigning emperor, John II Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1118--1143), and grew up together with his cousin (and John\'s successor) Manuel I Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1143--1180).
In 1130, Andronikos\'s father was involved in a conspiracy against John II while the emperor was away from Constantinople on campaign against the Sultanate of Rum. The conspiracy was uncovered but Isaac and his sons fled the capital and found refuge at the court of the Danishmendid emir Gümüshtigin Ghazi at Melitene. The family spent six years on the run, traveling to Trebizond, Armenian Cilicia, and eventually the Sultanate of Rum, before Isaac reconciled with John II and the emperor forgave him.
According to the historian Anthony Kaldellis, Andronikos was \"one of the most colorful and versatile personalities of the age\". He was tall, handsome, and brave, but a poor strategist, and was known for his good looks, intellect, charm, and elegance.
## Reign of Manuel I (1143--1180) {#reign_of_manuel_i_11431180}
### Imperial career {#imperial_career}
Manuel I Komnenos began his reign as emperor on good terms with Andronikos. Andronikos showed no signs of treachery towards his cousin and Manuel was fond of his company since the two were of similar age and had grown up together. Andronikos took offence when officials spoke badly of Manuel\'s governance and was lent Manuel\'s favorite horse while they were on military campaigns. Similar in personality, the friendship between Manuel and Andronikos only gradually transitioned into rivalry.
Manuel never succeeded in integrating Andronikos into the imperial family power network. Although talented and impressive as a person, Andronikos typically handled tasks entrusted to him carelessly. Relations between Manuel and Andronikos deteriorated in 1148, when Manuel appointed his favorite nephew John Doukas Komnenos as *protovestiarios* and *protosebastos*. These appointments were the last in a long line of extraordinary favors given to John and greatly wounded Andronikos, who from then on became involved in various intrigues against the emperor.
In 1151--1152, Manuel sent Andronikos with an army against Thoros II of Armenian Cilicia, who had conquered large parts of Byzantine-held Cilicia. The campaign was a dismal failure, as Thoros defeated Andronikos and occupied even more of Cilicia. Andronikos was nevertheless made governor of the portions that remained in imperial control.
In the winter of 1152--1153, the imperial court was at Pelagonia in Macedonia, perhaps for recreational hunting. During the stay there, Andronikos slept in the same tent as Eudokia Komnene, Manuel\'s niece and sister of John Komnenos Doukas, committing incest. When Eudokia\'s family attempted to catch the two in the act and assassinate Andronikos, he escaped by cutting a hole in the side of the tent with his sword. Manuel criticized the affair but Andronikos answered him that \"subjects should always follow their master\'s example\", alluding to well-founded rumors of the emperor himself having an incestuous relationship with Eudokia\'s sister Theodora.
Andronikos actively conspired against Manuel in the early 1150s, together with Baldwin III of Jerusalem and Mesud I of Rum. He was then removed from his command in Cilicia and transferred to oversee the governance of Branitzova and Naissus in the west. Not long thereafter, Andronikos promised to turn over these towns to Géza II of Hungary in return for aid in seizing the imperial throne. In 1155, Andronikos was imprisoned by Manuel in the imperial palace. According to Niketas Choniates, the imprisonment was a direct result of his plot to usurp the throne with Hungarian aid, and his affair with Eudokia. John Kinnamos, however, claims that Manuel knew of the intrigues and did not punish Andronikos until he uttered death threats to John Komnenos Doukas.
### Escapes from prison {#escapes_from_prison}
Andronikos escaped from prison in 1159, while Manuel was away on campaign in Cilicia and Syria. Having discovered an ancient underground passage beneath his cell, he dug his way down using only his hands and managed to conceal the opening so that the guards were unable to find any damage to the cell. The escape was reported to Manuel\'s wife, Empress Bertha-Irene, and a great search was ordered in Constantinople. In Andronikos\'s stead, his wife was briefly imprisoned in the same cell. According to Niketas Choniates, Andronikos soon emerged up into the cell again, embraced and had sex with his wife, conceiving his second son John. Andronikos then escaped the capital but was caught in Melangeia in Thrace by a soldier named Nikaias and imprisoned again with stronger chains and more guards.
Andronikos escaped prison for a second time in 1164. He had pretended to be ill and was provided with a boy to see to his physical needs. Andronikos convinced the boy to make wax impressions of the keys to his cell and to bring these impressions to Andronikos\'s elder son, Manuel. Manuel forged copies of the keys, which the boy used to let Andronikos out. Andronikos spent three days hiding in tall grass near the palace, before trying to flee in a fishing boat alongside a fisherman named Chysochoöpolos. The two were caught by guards, but Andronikos convinced them that he was an escaped slave and was let go out of compassion. Andronikos then made his way to his home, said goodbye to his family, and fled the capital, traveling beyond the Carpathian Mountains.
Andronikos first spent some time in Halych, where he was briefly captured by Vlachs from Moldavia who intended to bring him back to Manuel. During his captivity, Andronikos pretended to suffer from infectious diarrhea, requiring frequent stops to dismount and defecate alone and at a distance. One night, he made a dummy out of his cloak, hat, and staff, in the position of a man defecating. While the Vlachs watched the dummy, Andronikos managed to escape. He then made his way to Galicia, where he was well received by Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl.
During his time at Yaroslav\'s court, Andronikos tried to recruit the Cumans to aid him in an invasion of the Byzantine Empire. Despite these efforts, Manuel sought to reconcile with him and managed to form an anti-Hungarian alliance with Yaroslav. When the Byzantines and Galicians joined forces in a combined invasion of Hungary in the 1160s, Andronikos led a force of Galicians and assisted Manuel during a siege of Semlin. The campaign was a success and Andronikos returned with Manuel to Constantinople. In 1166, Andronikos was removed from court for refusing to take an oath of allegiance to then designated heir, Béla III of Hungary, but was entrusted once again to govern Cilicia.
### Exile
In 1167, Andronikos deserted his post in Cilicia and traveled to Antioch, where he seduced Philippa of Antioch. Philippa was the sister of both Manuel\'s second wife Maria and Bohemond III, the reigning prince of Antioch. The affair caused a scandal and threatened to jeopardize Manuel\'s foreign policy. Bohemond formally complained to the emperor that Andronikos was neglecting his duties in Cilicia and instead dallying with Philippa. Manuel was outraged and immediately recalled Andronikos, replacing him as governor in Cilicia with Constantine Kalamanos. Kalamanos was also dispatched to attempt to wed Philippa. Upon meeting Kalamanos, the princess refused to address him by name, berated him for being short, and derided Manuel as \"stupid and simple-minded\" for believing she would forsake Andronikos for a man from such an obscure family line. Andronikos refused to return home and instead fled with Philippa to Jerusalem, where King Amalric gave him Beirut as a fief to govern.
Andronikos left Philippa in 1168 and instead seduced the dowager queen Theodora Komnene, widow of Amalric\'s brother Baldwin III and daughter of Andronikos\'s cousin Isaac. Theodora was 21 years old at the time. The historian John Julius Norwich has described Theodora as the love of Andronikos\'s life, though their close relation made them unable to marry. Manuel was furious over this affair as well and again ordered Andronikos to return home. Fearing that Amalric would back Manuel, Andronikos feigned acceptance. He traveled to Acre without Theodora, though she suddenly arrived after him and the two eloped together to the court of Nur al-Din Zengi in Damascus. The arrival of a Byzantine prince and a dowager-queen of Jerusalem in Damascus became a sensation in the Muslim world and they were welcomed with much enthusiasm.
Andronikos and Theodora traveled from court to court for several years, making their way through Anatolia and the Caucasus. They were eventually received by George III of Georgia and Andronikos was granted estates in Kakhetia. In 1173 or 1174, Andronikos accompanied George on a military expedition to Shirvan up to the Caspian shores, where the Georgians recaptured the fortress of Shabaran from invaders from Darband for his cousin, the Shirvanshah Akhsitan I.
Andronikos and Theodora eventually settled in Koloneia in northeastern Anatolia, just beyond the frontier of the Byzantine Empire. Their peaceful life there came to an end when imperial officials captured Theodora and their two children and brought them to Constantinople. After over a decade in exile, Andronikos returned to Constantinople in 1180 and theatrically pleaded for forgiveness from Manuel with a chain around his neck, begging that Theodora and the children be returned. The two reconciled, and Andronikos was sent to govern Paphlagonia, where he lived with Theodora in a castle on the Black Sea coast. The arrangement was understood as internal exile and peaceful retirement. Theodora\'s ultimate fate is not known, though she likely died before Andronikos\'s return to imperial politics in 1182.
## Reign of Alexios II (1180--1183) {#reign_of_alexios_ii_11801183}
### Power struggle {#power_struggle}
Manuel died on 24 September 1180 and the throne was inherited by his eleven-year-old son, Alexios II Komnenos. A regency was set up for the young emperor, led by Manuel\'s widow, Maria of Antioch. Manuel had made his officials and nobles swear to obey Maria as regent, on the condition that she became a nun (which she did) and guarded the honor of the empire and their son. Maria was supported by Patriarch Theodosios Borradiotes and the *prōtosebastos* Alexios Komnenos, a nephew of Manuel. Despite this, she was in a dangerous position. She was of Latin (i.e. Catholic/Western European) origin and regent for a minor with ambitious relatives. Manuel had throughout his reign sought to integrate the empire into the world of the Latin states in the West and Levant through diplomacy. His efforts were largely unsuccessful, as Latin polities began to regard themselves as having a say in imperial politics and anti-Latin sentiment grew among the populace of the empire. Maria of Antioch was young and beautiful, leading to power struggles between officials who sought her favor. Little political attention was given to Alexios II, who as a child was devoted entirely to pursuits such as chariot races and hunting. The perceived pro-Latin stance of the regency and rumors that Maria and Alexios the *prōtosebastos* were lovers, as well as suspicions that the *prōtosebastos* planned to seize the throne for himself, led to the formation of a court faction opposed to the regency. Some of Maria\'s supporters also began to abandon her as the favors they sought were increasingly given to the *prōtosebastos*. The opposition was led by Manuel\'s daughter, Maria Komnene, her husband Renier of Montferrat, and Manuel\'s illegitimate son Alexios.
In early 1181, a plot to assassinate the *prōtosebastos* was uncovered and many were arrested. Maria Komnene and Renier sought asylum in the Hagia Sophia and were supported by Patriarch Theodosios and the clergy. The two conspirators turned the church into a stronghold and issued demands that the *prōtosebastos* be removed from office and that those arrested should be released. The citizenry of Constantinople were split between the two factions. Clashes erupted throughout the capital, lasting for two months. Maria Komnene, supported by the clergy, portrayed her revolt against the regency as a holy war. With the government focused on the power struggle, the empire swiftly lost territory to foreign enemies. Béla III of Hungary conquered Dalmatia and Sirmium, and Kilij Arslan II of Rum conquered Sozopolis and besieged Attaleia.
Peace was brokered in the capital by the *megas doux* Andronikos Kontostephanos and the patriarch but the conflict was not resolved. In 1182, Maria Komnene and other nobles sent for Andronikos in Paphlagonia, inviting him to the capital to assume the protection of Alexios II. Andronikos was by this time in his early sixties and regarded by some as an elder statesman. Because of his exile away from the affairs in the capital, he was seen as an impartial outsider who could champion the young emperor\'s best interests. Maria Komnene could also assume that he would be supportive of her since Andronikos\'s sons Manuel and John had been involved in her revolt. In the spring of 1182, Andronikos assembled an army and marched on Constantinople. He portrayed himself as a champion of Alexios II, accused Maria of Antioch and the *prōtosebastos* of conspiracy, and falsely claimed that Manuel had appointed him as one of Alexios II\'s regents. The general Andronikos Angelos was sent to intercept Andronikos but was defeated, fled back to Constantinople, and quickly defected to Andronikos out of fear of his failure being punished. Once Andronikos reached the Bosporus, public opinion in Constantinople was firmly on his side. The *prōtosebastos* organized a fleet to stop Andronikos, led by Kontostephanos, though Kontostephanos likewise defected to the rebel\'s side.
### Regent in Constantinople {#regent_in_constantinople}
With no military forces left to oppose Andronikos, the *prōtosebastos* was taken captive and taken across the Bosporus to Andronikos\'s camp, where he was blinded. Andronikos then ferried his troops to the city and took control virtually without opposition. He almost immediately made his way to the Pantokrator Monastery, apparently to pay his respects to the tomb of Manuel.
Soon after Andronikos gained control of Constantinople in April 1182, the Massacre of the Latins erupted in the city. Andronikos made no effort to stop the pogroms, instead referring to them as a \"defeat of the tyranny of the Latins\" and a \"restoration of Roman affairs\". There is no evidence that Andronikos was particularly anti-Latin on a personal level but the massacre was politically useful since anti-Latin sentiment had helped bring him to power and because many Latins in the city had supported Maria of Antioch\'s regency. The bulk of Constantinople\'s Latin population were either killed or forced to flee and the Latin quarters were plundered and set on fire. According to Eustathius of Thessalonica, approximately 60,000 people were killed though this number is likely exaggerated. A papal delegate visiting Constantinople was decapitated and his head was tied to the tail of a dog.
In May, Patriarch Theodosios formally handed Constantinople over to Andronikos. The patriarch and Andronikos ensured that Alexios II was formally crowned as emperor on 16 May 1182. Andronikos carried the young emperor into Hagia Sophia on his shoulders and acted as a devoted supporter. Andronikos soon dealt with his political rivals as well as all major schemers during Maria of Antioch\'s regency, including those who had supported him. The blinded *prōtosebastos* was exiled to a monastery. Both Maria Komnene and Renier of Montferrat were poisoned within a few months. Andronikos Kontostephanos was suspected of conspiracy and blinded alongside his four sons in the summer of 1183. Maria of Antioch remained an obstacle since she was legally appointed as regent. Andronikos had Patriarch Theodosios agree on expelling her from the palace and then had her prosecuted for treason on the basis that she had asked her brother-in-law, Béla III of Hungary, for help. Found guilty, Maria was imprisoned and Andronikos had Alexios II sign a document condemning her to death. The empress was strangled to death and subjected to *damnatio memoriae*, with her portraits in public places being replaced with imagery of Andronikos.
In the place of Manuel\'s officials, Andronikos raised up his own loyalists, such as Michael Haploucheir and Stephen Hagiochristophorites. The execution of Maria of Antioch left the young Alexios II without protection. Andronikos had some of the clergy formally absolve him of his oaths to Manuel and Alexios II and was crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. Soon thereafter, Alexios II was strangled and his body was thrown in the sea, encased in lead. Just over a year after taking power as the young emperor\'s guardian, Andronikos had thus had him suppressed and killed and now ruled in his own name.
## Reign (1183--1185) {#reign_11831185}
Andronikos\'s assumption of sole power rapidly plunged the empire into further instability. The elimination of Alexios II made Andronikos dependent on a power base bound only to him through self-interest. In Alexios\'s place, Andronikos in November 1183 named his son John as co-emperor and heir. The choice likely fell on the younger John rather than the older son, Manuel, since John was considered more loyal and his name adhered to the AIMA prophecy. One of the only members of the previous immediate imperial family to survive Andronikos\'s rise to power was Agnes of France, Alexios II\'s young French wife. To increase his legitimacy, the elderly Andronikos controversially married the eleven-year-old empress.
Andronikos concentrated his political efforts on internal affairs and was determined to curtail the power of the aristocracy and stop corruption, returning absolute control of the state to the hands of the emperor. Under the preceding Komnenoi emperors, regional magnates had acquired vast power, managing their administrations at will and exploiting peasants and common citizens. Although often brutal, Andronikos was generally successful in his anti-aristocratic measures and his policies had a favorable effect on the citizenry. Because the emperor directly endangered their positions, aristocrats were uncooperative and many rose in revolt, in turn being suppressed with cruelty and terror. The situation soon evolved into a reign of terror where even suspicion of disloyalty could result in disgrace and execution. There were imperial spies everywhere, night arrests, and sham trials. Andronikos\'s purges were not limited to Constantinople. In the spring of 1184, the emperor marched into Anatolia to punish the cities of Nicaea and Prusa, which opposed his accession. The rebels included the aristocrat Isaac Angelos and his family. During the siege, Andronikos had Isaac\'s mother Euphrosyne placed on top of a battering ram to deter the defenders from trying to destroy it. After Prusa was taken by storm, several of the defenders were impaled outside the city walls, though Isaac was spared due to surrendering in return for immunity.
Other than his brutal suppression of aristocrats, Andronikos attempted to put sensible policies in place to secure the well-being of the peasantry and provincial administration of the empire. The taxation system was overhauled in an attempt to root out corruption and ensure that only regular taxes were paid (and not surcharges imposed by tax farmers). He further legislated that offices for collecting revenue were to be awarded based on merit and not sold to the highest bidder. Andronikos was receptive to accusations against aristocrats by the common people and the prosperity of the provincial population increased under his rule. The emperor actively responded to complaints of inequality and corruption, and tried to shorten the gap between the provinces and the capital, seeking to solve problems that had originated in Manuel\'s pro-aristocratic reign.
The brutality enacted against the ruling class caused the alliances built up under Manuel in the Balkans to fall apart. Béla III of Hungary invaded the empire in 1183, posing as an avenger of Maria of Antioch, but was driven away in 1184. During this conflict, Stefan Nemanja managed to secure Serbian independence from the empire. The suppression of aristocrats and rivals, some of whom were Andronikos\'s family members, led to many Byzantine nobles fleeing the empire in search of aid. Komnenian princelings are recorded as having approached figures such as the king of Hungary, the sultan of Rum, the marquis of Montferrat, the pope, the king of Jerusalem, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa with pleas of intervention, stirring up further trouble against the empire. In 1184, Andronikos\'s cousin Isaac Komnenos seized Cyprus and ruled there independently; in retaliation, Andronikos had two of Isaac\'s relatives stoned and impaled.
## Downfall and death {#downfall_and_death}
In 1185, the *pinkernēs* Alexios Komnenos, a great-nephew of Manuel, approached William II of Sicily with a request for aid against Andronikos. William invaded the Byzantine Empire and successfully captured both Dyrrhachium and Thessaloniki in the name of a young man pretending to be Alexios II. The capture of Thessaloniki in August 1185 was followed by a brutal sack of the city, portrayed by the chronicler William of Tyre as if the Sicilians were \"making war on God himself\", and as revenge for the Massacre of the Latins. With Thessaloniki captured, the Sicilians turned their eyes towards Constantinople. The war, however, slowly shifted in Andronikos\'s favor. The Byzantines successfully split up the invaders into several smaller forces and were slowing down their advance eastwards. Despite beginning to turn the tide, the atmosphere in Constantinople was tense and fearful and the fall of Thessaloniki had turned the common people of the city, previously strong supporters of Andronikos, against the emperor.
During this time, Andronikos sent Stephen Hagiochristophorites to arrest the earlier rebel Isaac Angelos, who was a matrilineal relative of the Komnenos dynasty. Isaac panicked, killed Hagiochristophorites, and sought refuge in the Hagia Sophia. Finding himself at the center of popular demonstrations against Andronikos, Isaac unwittingly became the champion of an uprising and was proclaimed emperor. Andronikos tried to flee Constantinople in a boat but was captured and brought to Isaac.
Isaac handed Andronikos over to the incensed people of Constantinople. Andronikos was tied to a post and brutally beaten for three days. Alongside numerous other punishments, his right hand was cut off, his teeth and hair were pulled out, one of his eyes was gouged out, and boiling water was thrown in his face. Andronikos was then taken to the Hippodrome, where he was hung by his feet between two pillars. Two Latin soldiers competed over whose sword could penetrate his body more deeply, and Andronikos\'s body was eventually torn apart. According to Niketas Choniates, Andronikos endured the brutality bravely, and retained his senses throughout the ordeal. He died on 12 September 1185, and his remains were left unburied and visible for several years afterwards. At the news of Andronikos\'s death, his son and co-emperor John was murdered by his own troops in Thrace.
## Family
Andronikos was married twice and had numerous mistresses. He had three children with his first wife, whose name is not recorded:
- Manuel Komnenos (1145--after 1185), an ambassador under Manuel I and opposed to many of the policies of his father. Manuel was blinded by the new regime established by Isaac Angelos and disappears from the sources thereafter. He was married to the Georgian princess Rusudan and the couple had two sons, Alexios and David Komnenos. In 1204, Alexios and David founded the Empire of Trebizond, which continued to be ruled by their descendants. Trapezuntine efforts to gain influence and power in the wider Byzantine world were hindered both by geography and by their emperors descending from Andronikos.
- John Komnenos (1159--1185), co-emperor with Andronikos. Murdered by his own troops after Andronikos\'s death in September 1185.
- Maria Komnene (born c. 1166), married to the nobleman Theodore Synadenos in 1182 and then to a nobleman named Romanos. Romanos is noted for mishandling the defence of Dyrrhachium against the Sicilians in 1185. The fates of Maria and Romanos after Andronikos\'s death are unknown.
Andronikos had no children with his second wife, Agnes of France, nor any known illegitimate children with any of his mistresses other than his long-term partner Theodora Komnene, with whom he had two:
- Alexios Komnenos (1170--c. 1199), fled to Georgia after 1185, where he married into the local nobility. Claimed descendants include the noble family of Andronikashvili.
- Irene Komnene (born 1171), married to the *sebastokrator* Alexios Komnenos, an illegitimate son of Manuel I. Alexios was involved in a conspiracy in October 1183, whereafter he was blinded and imprisoned and Irene became a nun.
## Legacy
Andronikos\'s fall from power ended the rule of the Komnenos dynasty, which had governed the Byzantine Empire since 1081. He was vilified as a tyrant in Byzantine writings after his death. The later Angeloi emperors made it official imperial policy that Andronikos had been a tyrant, echoed in all texts addressed to them or their officials. This policy included changing earlier texts; in the writings of Theodore Balsamon, for instance, all references to Andronikos as *basileus* (emperor) were replaced by *tyrannos*. Nicetas Choniates, a contemporary historian, called Andronikos \"Misophaes\" (*μισοφαής*, `{{lit|hater of sunlight}}`{=mediawiki}) in reference to the great number of enemies he had blinded.
The earlier Komnenoi emperors had instituted the Komnenian system of administration, family rule, and financial and military obligations. This system allowed the empire to achieve prosperity and some internal stability. It also greatly increased the power and wealth of the landowning provincial aristocracy. Aristocrats had become able to run their administrations at will, exploit common citizens, and withhold funds from the central government to use for their own purposes. At its extreme, this could allow for independent local governments, such as that of Isaac Komnenos in Cyprus and the later realm ruled by Leo Sgouros in the Peloponnese. The power and abuses of the aristocracy was a very real issue, recognized by Andronikos, which ultimately contributed to the empire\'s catastrophic decline after his death.
Through his reforms and brutal suppression, Andronikos destroyed the Komnenian system, though his death ended all attempts to curb the power of the aristocracy. Over the course of the subsequent Angelos dynasty, aristocratic power instead increased and the empire\'s central authority collapsed. Though blame for Byzantine decline has in the past been levied at Andronikos\'s brutal rule, his brutal efforts did little damage to the empire\'s long-term stability since they were largely confined to the ruling class, mostly in Constantinople itself. His domestic reforms were largely sensible, though imposed too hastily, and his brutal fall from power after a short reign stopped any chance of repairing the system. The Angeloi emperors, Isaac II Angelos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1185--1195) and Alexios III Angelos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1195--1203), faced problems of manpower directly resulting from the increasingly decentralized empire.
The historian Paul Magdalino suggested in 1993 that Andronikos\'s reign saw the setting of the precedents that allowed the Fourth Crusade (1202--1204) to transpire, including an increasingly anti-Latin foreign policy as well as the phenomenon of relatives of the imperial family traveling abroad in the hope of securing foreign intervention in imperial politics.
Several scholars, including Jonathan Bate and Geoffrey Bullough have suggested that William Shakespeare\'s play *The Lamentable Tragedy of Titus Andronicus* was loosely based on Andronikos\'s life.
## Ancestry
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Andronicus of Cyrrhus
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**Andronicus of Cyrrhus** or **Andronicus Cyrrhestes** (Latin; *Ἀνδρόνικος Κυρρήστης*, *Andrónikos Kyrrhēstēs*; `{{fl.|{{c.|100}}{{nbsp}}BC}}`{=mediawiki}) was a Macedonian astronomer best known for designing the Tower of the Winds in Roman Athens.
## Life
Little is known about the life of Andronicus, although his father is recorded as Hermias. It is usually assumed that he came from the Cyrrhus in Macedonia rather than the one in Syria.
## Work
Andronicus is usually credited with the construction of the Tower of the Winds in the Roman forum at Athens around `{{nowrap|50 BC,}}`{=mediawiki} a considerable portion of which still exists. It is octagonal, with figures of the eight principal winds (Anemoi) carved on the appropriate side. Originally, a bronze figure of Triton was placed on the summit that was turned round by the wind so that the rod in his hand pointed to the correct wind direction, an idea replicated with subsequent wind vanes. The interior housed a large clepsydra and there were multiple sundials on the exterior, so that it functioned as a kind of early clocktower.
He also built a multifaced sundial for the Temple of Poseidon on the island of Tinos.
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1,767 |
Ammianus Marcellinus
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**Ammianus Marcellinus**, occasionally anglicized as **Ammian** (Greek: Αμμιανός Μαρκελλίνος; born c. 330, died c. lk=no`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}400), was a Greek and Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). Written in Latin and known as the *Res gestae*, his work chronicled the history of Rome from the accession of Emperor Nerva in 96 to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Only the sections covering the period 353 to 378 survive.
## Biography
Ammianus was born in the East Mediterranean, possibly in Syria or Phoenicia, around 330, into a noble family of Greek origin. Since he calls himself *Graecus* (`{{lit}}`{=mediawiki} Greek), he was most likely born in a Greek-speaking area of the empire. His native language was Greek, but he also knew Latin. The surviving books of his history cover the years 353 to 378.
Ammianus began his career as a military officer in the Praetorian Guard, where he gained firsthand experience in various military campaigns. He served as an officer in the army of the emperors Constantius II and Julian. He served in Gaul (Julian) and in the east (twice for Constantius, once under Julian). He professes to have been \"a former soldier and a Greek\" (*miles quondam et graecus*), and his enrollment among the elite *protectors domestic* (household guards) shows that he was of the middle class or higher birth. Consensus is that Ammianus probably came from a curial family, but it is also possible that he was the son of a *comes Orientis* of the same family name. He entered the army at an early age, when Constantius II was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and *magister militum*. Ammianus campaigned in the East twice under Ursicinus.
thumb\|upright=1.3\|The walls of Amida, built by Constantius II before the Siege of Amida of 359. Ammianus himself was present in the city until a day before its fall. He traveled with Ursicinus to Italy in an expedition against Silvanus, an officer who had proclaimed himself emperor in Gaul. Ursicinus ended the threat by having Silvanus assassinated, then stayed in the region to help install Julian as Caesar of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. Ammianus probably met Julian for the first time while serving on Ursicinus\' staff in Gaul.
In 359, Constantius sent Ursicinus back to the east to help in the defense against a Persian invasion led by King Shapur II himself. Ammianus returned with his commander to the East and again served Ursicinus as a staff officer. Ursicinus, although he was the more experienced commander, was placed under the command of Sabinianus, the *Magister Peditum* of the east. The two did not get along, resulting in a lack of cooperation between the Limitanei (border regiments) of Mesopotamia and Osrhoene under Ursicinus\' command and the *comitatus* (field army) of Sabinianus. While on a mission near Nisibis, Ammianus spotted a Persian patrol which was about to try and capture Ursicinus, and warned his commander in time. In an attempt to locate the Persian Royal Army, Ursicinus sent Ammianus to Jovinianus, the semi-independent governor of Corduene, and a friend of Ursicinus. Ammianus successfully located the Persian main body and reported his findings to Ursicinus.
After his mission in Corduene, Ammianus left the headquarters at Amida in the retinue of Ursinicus, who was on a mission to make sure the bridges across the Euphrates were demolished. They were attacked by the Persian vanguard, who had made a night march in an attempt to catch the Romans at Amida unprepared. After a protracted cavalry battle, the Romans were scattered; Ursicinus evaded capture and fled to Melitene, while Ammianus made a difficult journey back to Amida with a wounded comrade. The Persians besieged and eventually sacked Amida, and Ammianus barely escaped with his life.
When Ursicinus was dismissed from his military post by Constantius, Ammianus too seems to have retired from the military; however, reevaluation of his participation in Julian\'s Persian campaign has led modern scholarship to suggest that he continued his service but did not for some reason include the period in his history. He accompanied Julian, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Sassanids. After Julian\'s death, Ammianus accompanied the retreat of the new emperor, Jovian, as far as Antioch. He was residing in Antioch in 372 when a certain Theodorus was thought to have been identified as the successor to the emperor Valens by divination. Speaking as an alleged eyewitness, Marcellinus recounts how Theodorus and several others were made to confess their deceit through the use of torture, and cruelly punished.
He eventually settled in Rome and began the *Res gestae*. The precise year of his death is unknown, but scholarly consensus places it somewhere between 392 and 400 at the latest.
Modern scholarship generally describes Ammianus as a pagan who was tolerant of Christianity. Marcellinus writes of Christianity as being a \"plain and simple\" religion that demands only what is just and mild, and when he condemns the actions of Christians, he does not do so based on their Christianity as such. His lifetime was marked by lengthy outbreaks of sectarian and dogmatic strife within the new state-backed faith, often with violent consequences (especially the Arian controversy) and these conflicts sometimes appeared unworthy to him, though it was territory where he could not risk going very far in criticism, due to the growing and volatile political connections between the church and imperial power.
Ammianus was not blind to the faults of Christians or of pagans and was especially critical of them; he commented that \"no wild beasts are so hostile to men as Christian sects, in general, are to one another\" and he condemns the emperor Julian for excessive attachment to (pagan) sacrifice, and for his edict effectively barring Christians from teaching posts.
## Work
While living in Rome in the 380s, Ammianus wrote a Latin history of the Roman empire from the accession of Nerva (96) to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople (378), in effect writing a continuation of the history of Tacitus. At 22.16.12, he praises the Serapeum of Alexandria in Egypt as the glory of the empire, so his work was presumably completed before the destruction of that building in 391.
The *Res gestae* (*Rerum gestarum libri XXXI*) was originally composed of thirty-one books, but the first thirteen have been lost. The surviving eighteen books, covering the period from 353 to 378, constitute the foundation of modern understanding of the history of the fourth-century Roman Empire. They are lauded as a clear, comprehensive, and generally impartial account of events by a contemporary; like many ancient historians, however, Ammianus was in fact not impartial, although he expresses an intention to be so, and had strong moral and religious prejudices. Although criticized as lacking literary merit by his early biographers, he was in fact quite skilled in rhetoric, which significantly has brought the veracity of some of the *Res gestae* into question.
His work has suffered substantially from manuscript transmission. Aside from the loss of the first thirteen books, the remaining eighteen are in many places corrupt and lacunose. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth-century Carolingian text, Vatican lat. 1873 (*V*), produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in Fragmenta Marbugensia (*M*), another ninth-century Frankish codex which was taken apart to provide covers for account-books during the fifteenth century. Only six leaves of *M* survive; however, before this manuscript was dismantled the Abbot of Hersfeld lent the manuscript to Sigismund Gelenius, who used it in preparing the text of the second Froben edition (*G*). The dates and relationship of V and M were long disputed until 1936 when R. P. Robinson demonstrated persuasively that V was copied from M. As L. D. Reynolds summarizes, \"M is thus a fragment of the archetype; symptoms of an insular pre-archetype are evident.\"
His handling from his earliest printers was little better. The *editio princeps* was printed in 1474 in Rome by Georg Sachsel and Bartholomaeus Golsch, which broke off at the end of Book 26. The next edition (Bologna, 1517) suffered from its editor\'s conjectures upon the poor text of the 1474 edition; the 1474 edition was pirated for the first Froben edition (Basle, 1518). It was not until 1533 that the last five books of Ammianus\' history were put into print by Silvanus Otmar and edited by Mariangelus Accursius. The first modern edition was produced by C.U. Clark (Berlin, 1910--1913). The first English translations were by Philemon Holland in 1609, and later by C.D. Yonge in 1862.
## Reception
Edward Gibbon judged Ammianus \"an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary.\" But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: \"The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and disgusting accuracy.\" Austrian historian Ernst Stein praised Ammianus as \"the greatest literary genius that the world produced between Tacitus and Dante\".
According to Kimberly Kagan, his accounts of battles emphasize the experience of the soldiers but at the cost of ignoring the bigger picture. As a result, it is difficult for the reader to understand why the battles he describes had the outcome they did.
Ammianus\' work contains a detailed description of the earthquake and tsunami of 365 in Alexandria, which devastated the metropolis and the shores of the eastern Mediterranean on 21 July 365. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea, and sudden incoming giant wave.
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Apollo 7
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**Apollo 7** (October 11--22, 1968) was the first crewed flight in NASA\'s Apollo program, and saw the resumption of human spaceflight by the agency after the fire that had killed the three Apollo 1 astronauts during a launch rehearsal test on January 27, 1967. The Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew was commanded by Walter M. Schirra, with Command Module Pilot Donn F. Eisele and Lunar Module pilot R. Walter Cunningham (so designated even though Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 did not carry a Lunar Module).
The three astronauts were originally designated for the second crewed Apollo flight, and then as backups for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1. After the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 fire, crewed flights were suspended while the cause of the accident was investigated and improvements made to the spacecraft and safety procedures, and uncrewed test flights made. Determined to prevent a repetition of the fire, the crew spent long periods monitoring the construction of their Apollo command and service modules (CSM). Training continued over much of the `{{awrap|21-month}}`{=mediawiki} pause that followed the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 disaster.
Apollo 7 was launched on October 11, 1968, from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station, Florida, and splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean eleven days later. Extensive testing of the CSM took place, and also the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft. Despite tension between the crew and ground controllers, the mission was a complete technical success, giving NASA the confidence to send Apollo 8 into orbit around the Moon two months later. In part because of these tensions, none of the crew flew in space again, though Schirra had already announced he would retire from NASA after the flight. Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 fulfilled Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1\'s mission of testing the CSM in low Earth orbit, and was a significant step towards NASA\'s goal of landing astronauts on the Moon.
## Background and personnel {#background_and_personnel}
Schirra, one of the original \"Mercury Seven\" astronauts, graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1945. He flew Mercury-Atlas 8 in 1962, the fifth crewed flight of Project Mercury and the third to reach orbit, and in 1965 was the command pilot for Gemini 6A. He was a 45-year-old captain in the Navy at the time of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Eisele graduated from the Naval Academy in 1952 with a B.S. in aeronautics. He elected to be commissioned in the Air Force, and was a 38-year-old major at the time of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Cunningham joined the U.S. Navy in 1951, began flight training the following year, and served in a Marine flight squadron from 1953 to 1956, and was a civilian, aged 36, serving in the Marine Corps reserves with a rank of major, at the time of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. He received degrees in physics from UCLA, a B.A. in 1960 and an M.A. in 1961. Both Eisele and Cunningham were selected as part of the third group of astronauts in 1963.
Eisele was originally slotted for a position on Gus Grissom\'s Apollo 1 crew along with Ed White, but days prior to the official announcement on March 25, 1966, Eisele sustained a shoulder injury that would require surgery. Instead, Roger Chaffee was given the position and Eisele was reassigned to Schirra\'s crew.
Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were first named as an Apollo crew on September 29, 1966. They were to fly a second Earth orbital test of the Apollo Command Module (CM). Although delighted as a rookie to be assigned to a prime crew without having served as a backup, Cunningham was troubled by the fact that a second Earth orbital test flight, dubbed Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}2, seemed unnecessary if Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 was successful. He learned later that Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, another of the Mercury Seven who had been grounded for medical reasons and supervised the astronauts, planned, with Schirra\'s support, to command the mission if he gained medical clearance. When this was not forthcoming, Schirra remained in command of the crew, and in November 1966, Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}2 was cancelled and Schirra\'s crew assigned as backup to Grissom\'s. Thomas P. Stafford---assigned at that point as the backup commander of the second orbital test---stated that the cancellation followed Schirra and his crew submitting a list of demands to NASA management (Schirra wanted the mission to include a lunar module and a CM capable of docking with it), and that the assignment as backups left Schirra complaining that Slayton and Chief Astronaut Alan Shepard had destroyed his career.
On January 27, 1967, Grissom\'s crew was conducting a launch-pad test for their planned February 21 mission, when a fire broke out in the cabin, killing all three men. A complete safety review of the Apollo program followed. Soon after the fire, Slayton asked Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham to fly the first mission after the pause. Apollo 7 would use the Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II spacecraft designed for the lunar missions, as opposed to the Block I CSM used for Apollo 1, which was intended only to be used for the early Earth-orbit missions, as it lacked the capability of docking with a lunar module. The CM and astronauts\' spacesuits had been extensively redesigned, to reduce any chance of a repeat of the accident which killed the first crew. Schirra\'s crew would test the life support, propulsion, guidance and control systems during this \"open-ended\" mission (meaning it would be extended as it passed each test). The duration was limited to 11 days, reduced from the original 14-day limit for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1.
The backup crew consisted of Stafford as commander, John W. Young as command module pilot, and Eugene A. Cernan as lunar module pilot. They became the prime crew of Apollo 10. Ronald E. Evans, John L. \'Jack\' Swigert, and Edward G. Givens were assigned to the support crew for the mission. Givens died in a car accident on June 6, 1967, and William R. Pogue was assigned as his replacement. Evans was involved in hardware testing at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Swigert was the launch capsule communicator (CAPCOM) and worked on the mission\'s operational aspects. Pogue spent time modifying procedures. The support crew also filled in when the primary and backup crews were unavailable.
CAPCOMs, the person in Mission Control responsible for communicating with the spacecraft (then always an astronaut) were Evans, Pogue, Stafford, Swigert, Young and Cernan. Flight directors were Glynn Lunney, Gene Kranz and Gerry Griffin.
## Preparation
According to Cunningham, Schirra originally had limited interest in making a third spaceflight, beginning to focus on his post-NASA career. Flying the first mission after the fire changed things: \"Wally Schirra was being pictured as the man chosen to rescue the manned space program. And that was a task worthy of Wally\'s interest.\" Eisele noted, \"coming on the heels of the fire, we knew the fate and future of the entire manned space program---not to mention our own skins---was riding on the success or failure of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7.\"
Given the circumstances of the fire, the crew initially had little confidence in the staff at North American Aviation\'s plant at Downey, California, who built the Apollo command modules, and they were determined to follow their craft every step of the way through construction and testing. This interfered with training, but the simulators of the CM were not yet ready, and they knew it would be a long time until they launched. They spent long periods at Downey. Simulators were constructed at Houston\'s Manned Spacecraft Center and at KSC in Florida. Once these were available for use, the crew had difficulty finding enough time to do everything, even with the help of the backup and support crews; the crew often worked 12 or 14 hours per day. After the CM was completed and shipped to KSC, the focus of the crew\'s training shifted to Florida, though they went to Houston for planning and technical meetings. Rather than return to their Houston homes for the weekend, they often had to remain at KSC in order to participate in training or spacecraft testing. According to former astronaut Tom Jones in a 2018 article, Schirra, \"with indisputable evidence of the risks his crew would be taking, now had immense leverage with management at NASA and North American, and he used it. In conference rooms or on the spacecraft assembly line, Schirra got his way.\"
The Apollo 7 crew spent five hours in training for every hour they could expect to remain aboard if the mission went its full eleven days. In addition, they attended technical briefings and pilots\' meetings, and studied on their own. They undertook launch pad evacuation training, water egress training to exit the vehicle after splashdown, and learned to use firefighting equipment. They trained on the Apollo Guidance Computer at MIT. Each crew member spent 160 hours in CM simulations, in some of which Mission Control in Houston participated live. The \"plugs out\" test---the test that had killed the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 crew---was conducted with the prime crew in the spacecraft, but with the hatch open. One reason the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 crew had died was because it was impossible to open the inward-opening hatch before the fire raced through the cabin; this was changed for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7.
Command modules similar to that used on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 were subjected to tests in the run-up to the mission. A three-astronaut crew (Joseph P. Kerwin, Vance D. Brand and Joe H. Engle) was inside a CM that was placed in a vacuum chamber at the Manned Spaceflight Center in Houston for eight days in June 1968 to test spacecraft systems. Another crew (James Lovell, Stuart Roosa and Charles M. Duke) spent 48 hours at sea aboard a CM lowered into the Gulf of Mexico from a naval vessel in April 1968, to test how systems would respond to seawater. Further tests were conducted the following month in a tank at Houston. Fires were set aboard a boilerplate CM using various atmospheric compositions and pressures. The results led to the decision to use 60 percent oxygen and 40 percent nitrogen within the CM at launch, which would be replaced with a lower pressure of pure oxygen within four hours, as providing adequate fire protection. Other boilerplate spacecraft were subjected to drops to test parachutes, and to simulate the likely damage if a CM came down on land. All results were satisfactory.
During the run-up to the mission, the Soviets sent uncrewed probes Zond 4 and Zond 5 (Zond 5 carried two tortoises) around the Moon, seeming to foreshadow a circumlunar crewed mission. NASA\'s Lunar Module (LM) was suffering delays, and Apollo Program Spacecraft Manager George Low proposed that if Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was a success, that Apollo 8 go to lunar orbit without a LM. The acceptance of Low\'s proposal raised the stakes for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. According to Stafford, Schirra \"clearly felt the full weight of the program riding on a successful mission and as a result became more openly critical and more sarcastic.\"
Throughout the Mercury and Gemini programs, McDonnell Aircraft engineer Guenter Wendt led the spacecraft launch pad teams, with ultimate responsibility for condition of the spacecraft at launch. He earned the astronauts\' respect and admiration, including Schirra\'s. However, the spacecraft contractor had changed from McDonnell (Mercury and Gemini) to North American (Apollo), so Wendt was not the pad leader for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1. So adamant was Schirra in his desire to have Wendt back as pad leader for his Apollo flight, that he got his boss Slayton to persuade North American management to hire Wendt away from McDonnell, and Schirra personally lobbied North American\'s launch operations manager to change Wendt\'s shift from midnight to day so he could be pad leader for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Wendt remained as pad leader for the entire Apollo program. When he departed the spacecraft area as the pad was evacuated prior to launch, after Cunningham said, \"I think Guenter\'s going\", Eisele responded \"Yes, I think Guenter went.\"
## Hardware
### Spacecraft
The Apollo 7 spacecraft included Command and Service Module 101 (CSM-101), the first Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II CSM to be flown. The Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II craft had the capability of docking with a LM, though none was flown on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. The spacecraft also included the launch escape system and a spacecraft-lunar module adapter (SLA, numbered as SLA-5), though the latter included no LM and instead provided a mating structure between the SM and the S-IVB\'s Instrument Unit, with a structural stiffener substituted for the LM. The launch escape system was jettisoned after S-IVB ignition, while the SLA was left behind on the spent S-IVB when the CSM separated from it in orbit.
Following the Apollo 1 fire, the Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II CSM was extensively redesigned---more than 1,800 changes were recommended, of which 1,300 were implemented for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Prominent among these was the new aluminum and fiberglass outward-opening hatch, which the crew could open in seven seconds from within, and the pad crew in ten seconds from outside. Other changes included replacement of aluminum tubing in the high-pressure oxygen system with stainless steel, replacement of flammable materials with non-flammable (including changing plastic switches for metal ones) and, for crew protection in the event of a fire, an emergency oxygen system to shield them from toxic fumes, as well as firefighting equipment.
After the Gemini 3 craft was dubbed *Molly Brown* by Grissom, NASA forbade naming spacecraft. Despite this prohibition, Schirra wanted to name his ship \"Phoenix,\" but NASA refused him permission. The first CM to be given a call sign other than the mission designation would be that of Apollo 9, which carried a LM that would separate from it and then re-dock, necessitating distinct call signs for the two vehicles.
### Launch vehicle {#launch_vehicle}
Since it flew in low Earth orbit and did not include a LM, Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was launched with the Saturn IB booster rather than the much larger and more powerful Saturn V. That Saturn IB was designated SA-205, and was the fifth Saturn IB to be flown---the earlier ones did not carry crews into space. It differed from its predecessors in that stronger propellant lines to the augmented spark igniter in the J-2 engines had been installed, so as to prevent a repetition of the early shutdown that had occurred on the uncrewed Apollo 6 flight; postflight analysis had shown that the propellant lines to the J-2 engines, also used in the Saturn V tested on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}6, had leaked.
The Saturn IB was a two-stage rocket, with the second stage an S-IVB similar to the third stage of the Saturn V, the rocket used by all later Apollo missions. The Saturn IB was used after the close of the Apollo Program to bring crews in Apollo CSMs to Skylab, and for the Apollo--Soyuz Test Project.
Apollo 7 was the only crewed Apollo mission to launch from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station\'s Launch Complex 34. All subsequent Apollo and Skylab spacecraft flights (including Apollo--Soyuz) were launched from Launch Complex 39 at the nearby Kennedy Space Center. Launch Complex 34 was declared redundant and decommissioned in 1969, making Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 the last human spaceflight mission to launch from the Cape Air Force Station in the 20th century.
## Mission highlights {#mission_highlights}
The main purposes of the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 flight were to show that the Block II CM would be habitable and reliable over the length of time required for a lunar mission, to show that the service propulsion system (SPS, the spacecraft\'s main engine) and the CM\'s guidance systems could perform a rendezvous in orbit, and later make a precision reentry and splashdown. In addition, there were a number of specific objectives, including evaluating the communications systems and the accuracy of onboard systems such as the propellant tank gauges. Many of the activities aimed at gathering these data were scheduled for early in the mission, so that if the mission was terminated prematurely, they would already have been completed, allowing for fixes to be made prior to the next Apollo flight.
### Launch and testing {#launch_and_testing}
Apollo 7, the first crewed American space flight in 22 months, launched from Launch Complex 34 at 11:02:45`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}am EDT (15:02:45`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}UTC) on Friday, October 11, 1968.
During the countdown, the wind was blowing in from the east. Launching under these weather conditions was in violation of safety rules, since in the event of a launch vehicle malfunction and abort, the CM might be blown back over land instead of making the usual water landing. Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was equipped with the old Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1-style crew couches, which provided less protection than later ones. Schirra later related that he felt the launch should have been scrubbed, but managers waived the rule and he yielded under pressure.
Liftoff proceeded flawlessly; the Saturn IB performed well on its first crewed launch and there were no significant anomalies during the boost phase. The astronauts described it as very smooth. The ascent made the 45-year-old Schirra the oldest person to that point to enter space, and, as it proved, the only astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions.
Within the first three hours of flight, the astronauts performed two actions which simulated what would be required on a lunar mission. First, they maneuvered the craft with the S-IVB still attached, as would be required for the burn that would take lunar missions to the Moon. Then, after separation from the S-IVB, Schirra turned the CSM around and approached a docking target painted on the S-IVB, simulating the docking maneuver with the lunar module on Moon-bound missions prior to extracting the combined craft. Cunningham reported that the hinged SLA panels on the S-IVB had not fully opened, which CAPCOM Tom Stafford likened to the \"angry alligator\" from his Gemini 9A flight. Partially open panels would have presented a collision hazard on flights with an LM, so on subsequent missions the SLA panels were jettisoned after the CSM had separated. After station keeping with the S-IVB for 20 minutes, Schirra let it drift away, putting 76 mi between the CSM and it in preparation for the following day\'s rendezvous attempt.
The astronauts also enjoyed a hot lunch, the first hot meal prepared on an American spacecraft. Schirra had brought instant coffee along over the opposition of NASA doctors, who argued it added nothing nutritionally. Five hours after launch, he reported having, and enjoying, his first plastic bag full of coffee.
The purpose of the rendezvous was to demonstrate the CSM\'s ability to match orbits with and rescue a LM after an aborted lunar landing attempt, or following liftoff from the lunar surface. This was to occur on the second day; but by the end of the first, Schirra had reported he had a cold, and, despite Slayton coming on the loop to argue in favor, declined Mission Control\'s request that the crew power up and test the onboard television camera prior to the rendezvous, citing the cold, that the crew had not eaten, and that there was already a very full schedule.
The rendezvous was complicated by the fact that the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 spacecraft lacked a rendezvous radar, something the Moon-bound missions would have. The SPS, the engine that would be needed to send later Apollo CSMs into and out of lunar orbit, had been fired only on a test stand. Although the astronauts were confident it would work, they were concerned it might fire in an unexpected manner, necessitating an early end to the mission. The burns would be computed from the ground but the final work in maneuvering up to the S-IVB would require Eisele to use the telescope and sextant to compute the final burns, with Schirra applying the ship\'s reaction control system (RCS) thrusters. Eisele was startled by the violent jolt caused by activating the SPS. The thrust caused Schirra to yell, \"Yabba dabba doo!\" in reference to *The Flintstones* cartoon. Schirra eased the craft close to the S-IVB, which was tumbling out of control, successfully completing the rendezvous.
The first television broadcast took place on October 14. It began with a view of a card reading \"From the Lovely Apollo Room high atop everything\", recalling tag lines used by band leaders on 1930s radio broadcasts. Cunningham served as camera operator with Eisele as emcee. During the seven-minute broadcast, the crew showed off the spacecraft and gave the audience views of the southern United States. Before the close, Schirra held another sign, \"Keep those cards and letters coming in folks\", another old-time radio tag line that had been used recently by Dean Martin. This was the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft (Gordon Cooper had transmitted slow-scan television pictures from *Faith`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7* in 1963, but the pictures were of poor quality and were never broadcast). According to Jones, \"these apparently amiable astronauts delivered to NASA a solid public relations coup.\" Daily television broadcasts of about 10 minutes each followed, during which the crew held up more signs and educated their audience about spaceflight; after the return to Earth, they were awarded a special Emmy for the telecasts.
Later on October 14, the craft\'s onboard radar receiver was able to lock onto a ground-based transmitter, again showing a CSM in lunar orbit could keep contact with a LM returning from the Moon\'s surface. Throughout the remainder of the mission, the crew continued to run tests on the CSM, including of the propulsion, navigation, environmental, electrical and thermal control systems. All checked out well; according to authors Francis French and Colin Burgess, \"The redesigned Apollo spacecraft was better than anyone had dared to hope.\" Eisele found that navigation was not as easy as anticipated; he found it difficult to use Earth\'s horizon in sighting stars due to the fuzziness of the atmosphere, and water dumps made it difficult to discern which glistening points were stars and which ice particles. By the end of the mission, the SPS engine had been fired eight times without any problems.
One difficulty that was encountered was with the sleep schedule, which called for one crew member to remain awake at all times; Eisele was to remain awake while the others slept, and sleep during part of the time the others were awake. This did not work well, as it was hard for crew members to work without making a disturbance. Cunningham later remembered waking up to find Eisele dozing.
### Conflict and splashdown {#conflict_and_splashdown}
Schirra was angered by NASA managers allowing the launch to proceed despite the winds, saying \"The mission pushed us to the wall in terms of risk.\" Jones said, \"This prelaunch dispute was the prelude to a tug of war over command decisions for the rest of the mission.\" Lack of sleep and Schirra\'s cold probably contributed to the conflict between the astronauts and Mission Control that surfaced from time to time during the flight.
The testing of the television resulted in a disagreement between the crew and Houston. Schirra stated at the time, \"You\'ve added two burns to this flight schedule, and you\'ve added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I can tell you at this point, TV will be delayed without any further discussion until after the rendezvous.\" Schirra later wrote, \"we\'d resist anything that interfered with our main mission objectives. On this particular Saturday morning a TV program clearly interfered.\" Eisele agreed in his memoirs, \"We were preoccupied with preparations for that critical exercise and didn\'t want to divert our attention with what seemed to be trivialities at the time.`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... Evidently the earth people felt differently; there was a real stink about the hotheaded, recalcitrant Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew who wouldn\'t take orders.\" French and Burgess wrote, \"When this point is considered objectively---that in a front-loaded mission the rendezvous, alignment, and engine tests should be done before television shows---it is hard to argue with him \[Schirra\].\" Although Slayton gave in to Schirra, the commander\'s attitude surprised flight controllers.
On Day 8, after being asked to follow a new procedure passed up from the ground that caused the computer to freeze, Eisele radioed, \"We didn\'t get the results that you were after. We didn\'t get a damn thing, in fact`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... you bet your ass`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... as far as we\'re concerned, somebody down there screwed up royally when he laid that one on us.\" Schirra later stated his belief that this was the one main occasion when Eisele upset Mission Control. The next day saw more conflict, with Schirra telling Mission Control after having to make repeated firings of the RCS system to keep the spacecraft stable during a test, \"I wish you would find out the idiot\'s name who thought up this test. I want to find out, and I want to talk to him personally when I get back down.\" Eisele joined in, \"While you are at it, find out who dreamed up \'P22 horizon test\'; that is a beauty also.\"
A further source of tension between Mission Control and the crew was that Schirra repeatedly expressed the view that the reentry should be conducted with their helmets off. He perceived a risk that their eardrums might burst due to the sinus pressure from their colds, and they wanted to be able to pinch their noses and blow to equalize the pressure as it increased during reentry. This would have been impossible wearing the helmets. Over several days, Schirra refused advice from the ground that the helmets should be worn, stating it was his prerogative as commander to decide this, though Slayton warned him he would have to answer for it after the flight. Schirra stated in 1994, \"In this case I had a cold, and I\'d had enough discussion with the ground, and I didn\'t have much more time to talk about whether we would put the helmet on or off. I said, essentially, I\'m on board, I\'m commanding. They could wear all the black armbands they wanted if I was lost or if I lost my hearing. But I had the responsibility for getting through the mission.\" No helmets were worn during the entry. Director of Flight Operations Christopher C. Kraft demanded an explanation for what he believed was Schirra\'s insubordination from the CAPCOM, Stafford. Kraft later said, \"Schirra was exercising his commander's right to have the last word, and that was that.\"
Apollo 7 splashed down without incident at 11:11:48 UTC on October 22, 1968, 200 nmi SSW of Bermuda and 7 nmi north of the recovery ship USS *Essex*. The mission\'s duration was 10`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}days, 20`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}hours, 9`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}minutes and 3`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}seconds.
## Assessment and aftermath {#assessment_and_aftermath}
After the mission, NASA awarded Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham its Exceptional Service Medal in recognition of their success. On November 2, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson held a ceremony at the LBJ Ranch in Johnson City, Texas, to present the astronauts with the medals. He also presented NASA\'s highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, to recently retired NASA administrator James E. Webb, for his \"outstanding leadership of America\'s space program\" since the beginning of Apollo. Johnson also invited the crew to the White House, and they went there in December 1968.
Despite the difficulties between the crew and Mission Control, the mission successfully met its objectives to verify the Apollo command and service module\'s flightworthiness, allowing Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8\'s flight to the Moon to proceed just two months later. John T. McQuiston wrote in *The New York Times* after Eisele\'s death in 1987 that Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7\'s success brought renewed confidence to NASA\'s space program. According to Jones, \"Three weeks after the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew returned, NASA administrator Thomas Paine green-lighted Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8 to launch in late December and orbit the Moon. Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 had delivered NASA from its trial by fire---it was the first small step down a path that would lead another crew, nine months later, to the Sea of Tranquility.\"
General Sam Phillips, the Apollo Program Manager, said at the time, \"Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 goes into my book as a perfect mission. We accomplished 101 percent of our objectives.\" Kraft wrote, \"Schirra and his crew did it all---or at least all of it that counted`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... \[T\]hey proved to everyone\'s satisfaction that the SPS engine was one of the most reliable we\'d ever sent into space. They operated the Command and Service Modules with true professionalism.\" Eisele wrote, \"We were insolent, high-handed, and Machiavellian at times. Call it paranoia, call it smart---it got the job done. We had a great flight.\" Kranz stated in 1998, \"we all look back now with a longer perspective. Schirra really wasn\'t on us as bad as it seemed at the time.`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... Bottom line was, even with a grumpy commander, we got the job done as a team.\"
None of the Apollo 7 crew members flew in space again. According to Jim Lovell, \"Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was a very successful flight---they did an excellent job---but it was a very contentious flight. They all teed off the ground people quite considerably, and I think that kind of put a stop on future flights \[for them\].\" Schirra had announced, before the flight, his retirement from NASA and the Navy, effective July 1, 1969. The other two crew members had their spaceflight careers stunted by their involvement in Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7; by some accounts, Kraft told Slayton he was unwilling to work in future with any member of the crew. Cunningham heard the rumors that Kraft had said this and confronted him in early 1969; Kraft denied making the statement \"but his reaction wasn\'t exactly outraged innocence.\" Eisele\'s career may also have been affected by becoming the first active astronaut to divorce, followed by a quick remarriage, and an indifferent performance as backup CMP for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}10. He resigned from the Astronaut Office in 1970 though he remained with NASA at the Langley Research Center in Virginia until 1972, when he was eligible for retirement. Cunningham was made the leader of the Astronaut Office\'s Skylab division. He related that he was informally offered command of the first Skylab crew, but when this instead went to Apollo 12 commander Pete Conrad, with Cunningham offered the position of backup commander, he resigned as an astronaut in 1971.
Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were the only crew, of all the Apollo, Skylab and Apollo--Soyuz missions, who had not been awarded the Distinguished Service Medal immediately following their missions (though Schirra had received the medal twice before, for his Mercury and Gemini missions). Therefore, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin decided to belatedly award the medals to the crew in October 2008, \"\[f\]or exemplary performance in meeting all the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 mission objectives and more on the first crewed Apollo mission, paving the way for the first flight to the Moon on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8 and the first crewed lunar landing on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}11.\" Only Cunningham was still alive at the time as Eisele had died in 1987 and Schirra in 2007. Eisele\'s widow accepted his medal, and Apollo 8 crew member Bill Anders accepted Schirra\'s. Other Apollo astronauts, including Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Alan Bean, were present at the award ceremony. Kraft, who had been in conflict with the crew during the mission, sent a conciliatory video message of congratulations, saying: \"We gave you a hard time once but you certainly survived that and have done extremely well since`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... I am frankly, very proud to call you a friend.\"
## Mission insignia {#mission_insignia}
The insignia for the flight shows a command and service module with its SPS engine firing, the trail from that fire encircling a globe and extending past the edges of the patch symbolizing the Earth-orbital nature of the mission. The Roman numeral`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}VII appears in the South Pacific Ocean and the crew\'s names appear on a wide black arc at the bottom. The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.
## Spacecraft location {#spacecraft_location}
In January 1969, the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 command module was displayed on the NASA float in the inauguration parade of President Richard M. Nixon. The Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 astronauts rode in an open car. After being transferred to the Smithsonian Institution in 1970, the spacecraft was loaned to the National Museum of Science and Technology, in Ottawa, Ontario. It was returned to the United States in 2004. Currently, the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 CM is on loan to the Frontiers of Flight Museum at Love Field in Dallas, Texas.
## Depiction in media {#depiction_in_media}
On November 6, 1968, comedian Bob Hope broadcast one of his variety television specials from NASA\'s Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston to honor the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew. Barbara Eden, star of the popular comedy series *I Dream of Jeannie*, which featured fictional astronauts among its regular characters, appeared with Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham.
Schirra parlayed the head cold he contracted during Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 into a television advertising contract as a spokesman for Actifed, an over-the-counter version of the medicine he took in space.
The Apollo 7 mission is dramatized in the 1998 miniseries *From the Earth to the Moon* episode \"We Have Cleared the Tower\", with Mark Harmon as Schirra, John Mese as Eisele, Fredric Lehne as Cunningham and Nick Searcy as Slayton.
## Gallery
<File:Apollo> 7 photographed in flight by ALOTS (68-HC-641).jpg\|Apollo 7 in flight <File:Saturn> IB Second Stage with open LM adapter.jpg\|Distant view of the S-IVB stage <File:AS07-11-2000> (21355660044).jpg\|View of the Sinai Peninsula from Apollo 7 <File:Apollo> 7 Command Module Museum.jpg\|The Apollo 7 command module on display
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Apuleius
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**Apuleius** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|p|j|ʊ|ˈ|l|iː|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|APP|yuu|LEE|əs}}`{=mediawiki}), also called **Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis** (c. 124 -- after 170), was a Numidian Latin-language prose writer, Platonist philosopher and rhetorician. He was born in the Roman province of Numidia, in the Berber city of Madauros, modern-day M\'Daourouch, Algeria. He studied Platonism in Athens, travelled to Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt, and was an initiate in several cults or mysteries. The most famous incident in his life was when he was accused of using magic to gain the attentions (and fortune) of a wealthy widow. He declaimed and then distributed his own defense before the proconsul and a court of magistrates convened in Sabratha, near Oea (modern Tripoli, Libya). This is known as the *Apologia*.
His most famous work is his bawdy picaresque novel the *Metamorphoses*, otherwise known as *The Golden Ass*. It is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It relates the adventures of its protagonist, Lucius, who experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into a donkey. Lucius goes through various adventures before he is turned back into a human being by the goddess Isis.
## Life
Apuleius was born in Madauros, a *colonia* in Numidia on the North African coast bordering Gaetulia, and he described himself as \"half-Numidian half-Gaetulian.\" Madaurus was the same *colonia* where Augustine of Hippo later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. As to his first name, no *praenomen* is given in any ancient source; late-medieval manuscripts began the tradition of calling him *Lucius* from the name of the hero of his novel. Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (*Apology*) and his work *Florida*, which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches.
His father was a municipal magistrate (*duumvir*) who bequeathed at his death the sum of nearly two million sesterces to his two sons. Apuleius studied with a master at Carthage (where he later settled) and later at Athens, where he studied Platonist philosophy among other subjects. He subsequently went to Rome to study Latin rhetoric and, most likely, to speak in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in Asia Minor and Egypt, studying philosophy and religion, burning up his inheritance while doing so.
Apuleius was an initiate in several Greco-Roman mysteries, including the Dionysian Mysteries.`{{refn |group=note|As he proudly claims in his ''Apologia''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Winter |first=Thomas Nelson |year=2006 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=classicsfacpub |title=Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius |journal=Faculty Publications, Classics and Religious Studies Department |issue=4}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} He was a priest of Asclepius and, according to Augustine, *sacerdos provinciae Africae* (i.e., priest of the province of Carthage).
Not long after his return home he set out upon a new journey to Alexandria. On his way there he was taken ill at the town of Oea (modern-day Tripoli) and was hospitably received into the house of Sicinius Pontianus, with whom he had been friends when he had studied in Athens. The mother of Pontianus, Pudentilla, was a very rich widow. With her son\'s consent -- indeed encouragement -- Apuleius agreed to marry her. Meanwhile, Pontianus himself married the daughter of one Herennius Rufinus; he, indignant that Pudentilla\'s wealth should pass out of the family, instigated his son-in-law, together with a younger brother, Sicinius Pudens, a mere boy, and their paternal uncle, Sicinius Aemilianus, to join him in impeaching Apuleius upon the charge that he had gained the affections of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells. The case was heard at Sabratha, near Tripoli, c. 158 AD, before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa. The accusation itself seems to have been ridiculous, and the spirited and triumphant defence spoken by Apuleius is still extant. This is known as the *Apologia (A Discourse on Magic)*.
Apuleius accused an extravagant personal enemy of turning his house into a brothel and prostituting his wife.
Of his subsequent career, we know little. Judging from the many works of which he was author, he must have devoted himself diligently to literature. He occasionally gave speeches in public to great reception; he had the charge of exhibiting gladiatorial shows and wild beast events in the province, and statues were erected in his honour by the senate of Carthage and of other senates.
The date, place and circumstances of Apuleius\' death are not known. There is no record of his activities after 170, a fact which has led some people to believe that he must have died about then (say in 171), although other scholars feel that he may still have been alive in 180 or even 190.
## Works
### *The Golden Ass* {#the_golden_ass}
*The Golden Ass* (*Asinus Aureus*) or *Metamorphoses* is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It relates the adventures of one Lucius, who introduces himself as related to the famous philosophers Plutarch and Sextus of Chaeronea. Lucius experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into an ass. In this guise, he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way. Within this frame story are found many digressions, the longest among them being the well-known tale of Cupid and Psyche. This story is a rare instance of a fairy tale preserved in an ancient literary text.
The *Metamorphoses* ends with the (once again human) hero, Lucius, eager to be initiated into the mystery cult of Isis; he abstains from forbidden foods, bathes, and purifies himself. He is introduced to the *Navigium Isidis*. Then the secrets of the cult\'s books are explained to him, and further secrets are revealed before he goes through the process of initiation, which involves a trial by the elements on a journey to the underworld. Lucius is then asked to seek initiation into the cult of Osiris in Rome, and eventually is initiated into the *pastophoroi* -- a group of priests that serves Isis and Osiris.
### *Apologia*
(*Apulei Platonici pro Se de Magia*) is the version of the defence presented in Sabratha, in 158--159, before the proconsul Claudius Maximus, by Apuleius accused of the crime of magic. Between the traditional exordium and peroratio, the argumentation is divided into three sections:
1. Refutation of the accusations levelled against his private life. He demonstrates that by marrying Pudentilla he had no interested motive and that he carries it away, intellectually and morally, on his opponents.
2. Attempt to prove that his so-called \"magical operations\" were in fact indispensable scientific experiments for an imitator of Aristotle and Hippocrates, or the religious acts of a Roman Platonist.
3. A recount of the events that have occurred in Oea since his arrival and pulverize the arguments against him.
The main interest of the *Apologia* is historical, as it offers substantial information about its author, magic and life in Africa in the second century.
### Other
His other works are:
- *Florida*. A compilation of twenty-three extracts from his various speeches and lectures.
- *De Platone et dogmate eius (On Plato and His Doctrine)*. An outline in two books of Plato\'s physics and ethics, preceded by a life of Plato
- *`{{visible anchor|De Deo Socratis}}`{=mediawiki} (On the God of Socrates)*. A work on the existence and nature of daemons, the intermediaries between gods and humans. This treatise was attacked by Augustine of Hippo in *The City of God* (Books VIII to X), while Lactantius reserved it for short-lived creatures. *De Deo Socratis* contains a passage comparing gods and kings which is the first recorded occurrence of the proverb \"**familiarity breeds contempt**\":`{{Blockquote|''parit enim conversatio contemptum, raritas conciliat admirationem''<br />(familiarity breeds contempt, rarity brings admiration)|sign=|source=}}`{=mediawiki}
- *On the Universe*. This Latin translation of Pseudo-Aristotle\'s work *De Mundo* is probably by Apuleius.
Apuleius wrote many other works which have not survived. He wrote works of poetry and fiction, as well as technical treatises on politics, dendrology, agriculture, medicine, natural history, astronomy, music, and arithmetic, and he translated Plato\'s *Phaedo*.
### Spurious
Extant works wrongly attributed to Apuleius include:
- *Peri Hermeneias* (*On Interpretation*). A brief Latin version of a guide to Aristotelian logic.
- *Asclepius*. A Latin paraphrase of a lost Greek dialogue (*The Perfect Discourse*) featuring Asclepius and Hermes Trismegistus.
- *Herbarium Apuleii Platonici* by Pseudo-Apuleius.
## Apuleian Sphere {#apuleian_sphere}
The Apuleian Sphere described in *Petosiris to Nechepso*, also known as \"Columcille\'s Circle\" or \"Petosiris\' Circle\", is a magical prognosticating device for predicting the survival of a patient.
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Alexander Selkirk
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**Alexander Selkirk** (1676`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}13 December 1721) was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent four years and four months as a castaway (1704--1709) after being marooned by his captain, initially at his request, on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean.
Selkirk was an unruly youth and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on *Cinque Ports*, captained by Thomas Stradling, under the overall command of William Dampier. Stradling\'s ship stopped to resupply at the uninhabited Juan Fernández Islands, west of South America, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there. Selkirk\'s suspicions were soon justified, as *Cinque Ports* foundered near Malpelo Island 400 km (250 mi) from the coast of what is now Colombia.
By the time he was eventually rescued by the privateer Woodes Rogers, who was accompanied by Dampier, Selkirk had become adept at hunting and making use of the resources that he found on the island. His story of survival was widely publicized after his return and became one of the reputed sources of inspiration for the fictional character Robinson Crusoe of the English writer Daniel Defoe.
## Early life and privateering {#early_life_and_privateering}
Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676. In his youth, he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. He was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693 for his \"indecent conduct in church\", but he \"did not appear, being gone to sea\". He was back at Largo in 1701 when he again came to the attention of church authorities for assaulting his brothers.
Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering. In 1703, he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean, setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September. They carried letters of marque from the Lord High Admiral authorizing their armed merchant ships to attack foreign enemies as the War of the Spanish Succession was then going on between England and Spain. Dampier was captain of *St George* and Selkirk served on *Cinque Ports*, *St George*{{\'}}s companion ship, as sailing master under Captain Thomas Stradling. By this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea.
In February 1704, following a stormy passage around Cape Horn, the privateers fought a long battle with a well-armed French vessel, *St Joseph*, only to have it escape to warn its Spanish allies of their arrival in the Pacific. A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their landing party was ambushed. The easy capture of *Asunción*, a heavily laden merchantman, revived the men\'s hopes of plunder, and Selkirk was put in charge of the prize ship. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar, and flour, then abruptly set the ship free, arguing that the gain was not worth the effort. In May 1704, Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own.
## Castaway
In September 1704, after parting ways with Dampier, Captain Stradling brought *Cinque Ports* to an island known to the Spanish as Más a Tierra located in the uninhabited Juan Fernández archipelago 670 km off the coast of Chile for a mid-expedition restocking of fresh water and supplies.
Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel and wanted to make the necessary repairs before going any further. He declared that he would rather stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship. Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, a Bible, bedding and some clothes. Selkirk immediately regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board.
*Cinque Ports* later foundered off the coast of what is now Colombia. Stradling and \"six or seven of his Men\" survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. They were taken to Lima where they endured a harsh imprisonment. Stradling attempted escape after stealing a canoe in Lima, but was recaptured and punished. The Spanish governor threatened to send all the survivors to the mines. The survivors ultimately returned to England after four years of imprisonment.
### Life on the island {#life_on_the_island}
At first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Más a Tierra. During this time, he ate spiny lobsters and scanned the ocean daily for rescue, suffering all the while from loneliness, misery, and remorse. Hordes of raucous sea lions, gathering on the beach for the mating season, eventually drove him to the island\'s interior. Once inland, his way of life took a turn for the better. More foods were available there: feral goats---introduced by earlier sailors---provided him with meat and milk, while wild turnips, the leaves of the indigenous cabbage tree and dried *Schinus* fruits (pink peppercorns) offered him variety and spice. Rats would attack him at night, but he was able to sleep soundly and in safety by domesticating and living near feral cats.
Selkirk proved resourceful in using materials that he found on the island: he forged a new knife out of barrel hoops left on the beach; built two huts out of pepper trees, one of which he used for cooking and the other for sleeping; and employed his musket to hunt goats and his knife to clean their carcasses. As his gunpowder dwindled, he had to chase prey on foot. During one such chase, he was badly injured when he tumbled from a cliff, lying helpless and unable to move for about a day. His prey had cushioned his fall, probably sparing him a broken back.
Childhood lessons learned from his father, a tanner, now served him well. For example, when his clothes wore out, he made new ones from hair-covered goatskins using a nail for sewing. As his shoes became unusable, he did not need to replace them, since his toughened, calloused feet made protection unnecessary. He sang psalms and read from the Bible, finding it a comfort in his situation and a prop for his English.
During his sojourn on the island, two vessels came to anchor. Unfortunately for Selkirk, both were Spanish. Being British and a privateer, he would have faced a grim fate if captured and therefore did his best to hide. Once, he was spotted and chased by a group of Spanish sailors from one of the ships. His pursuers urinated beneath the tree in which he was hiding but failed to notice him. The would-be captors then gave up and sailed away.
### Rescue
Selkirk\'s long-awaited deliverance came on 2 February 1709 by way of *Duke*, a privateering ship piloted by William Dampier, and its sailing companion *Duchess*. Thomas Dover led the landing party that met Selkirk. After four years and four months without human company, Selkirk was almost incoherent with joy. The *Duke*{{\'s}} captain and leader of the expedition was Woodes Rogers, who wryly referred to Selkirk as the governor of the island. The agile castaway caught two or three goats a day and helped restore the health of Rogers\' men, who had developed scurvy.
Captain Rogers was impressed by Selkirk\'s physical vigour, but also by the peace of mind that he had attained while living on the island, observing: \"One may see that solitude and retirement from the world is not such an insufferable state of life as most men imagine, especially when people are fairly called or thrown into it unavoidably, as this man was.\" He made Selkirk *Duke*{{\'}}s second mate, later giving him command of one of their prize ships, *Increase*, before it was ransomed by the Spanish.
Selkirk returned to privateering with a vengeance. At Guayaquil in present-day Ecuador, he led a boat crew up the Guayas River where several wealthy Spanish ladies had fled, and looted the gold and jewels they had hidden inside their clothing. His part in the hunt for treasure galleons along the coast of Mexico resulted in the capture of *Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño*, renamed *Bachelor*, on which he served as sailing master under Captain Dover to the Dutch East Indies. Selkirk completed the around-the-world voyage by the Cape of Good Hope as the sailing master of *Duke*, arriving at the Downs off the English coast on 1 October 1711. He had been away for eight years.
## Later life and influence {#later_life_and_influence}
thumb\|left\|upright=0.65\|alt=Engraving of Robinson Crusoe standing on the shore of an island, dressed in hair-covered goatskin clothing\|An illustration of Crusoe in goatskin clothing shows the influence of Selkirk Selkirk\'s experience as a castaway aroused a great deal of attention in Britain. His fellow crewman Edward Cooke mentioned Selkirk\'s ordeal in a book chronicling their privateering expedition, *A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World* (1712). A more detailed recounting was published by the expedition\'s leader, Rogers, within months. The following year, prominent essayist Richard Steele wrote an article about him for *The Englishman* newspaper. Selkirk appeared set to enjoy a life of ease and celebrity, claiming his share of *Duke*{{\'s}} plundered wealth---about £800 (equivalent to £`{{Inflation|UK|800|1713|r=-4|fmt=c}}`{=mediawiki} today). However, legal disputes made the amount of any payment uncertain.
After a few months in London, he began to seem more like his former self again. However, he still missed his secluded and solitary moments, remarking, \"I am now worth eight hundred pounds, but shall never be as *happy* as when I was not worth a farthing.\" In September 1713, he was charged with assaulting a shipwright in Bristol and might have been kept in confinement for two years. He returned to Lower Largo, where he met Sophia Bruce, a young dairymaid. They eloped to London early and married on 4 March 1717. He was soon off to sea again, having enlisted in the Royal Navy. While on a visit to Plymouth in 1720, he married a widowed innkeeper named Frances Candis. He was serving as an officer on board `{{HMS|Weymouth|1693|6}}`{=mediawiki}, engaged in an anti-piracy patrol off the west coast of Africa. The ship arrived near the mouth of the River Gambia in March 1721 and lingered due to damage from bad weather. The locals took several crew hostage and ransomed them for \"gold and food.\" As the ship sailed down the coast of West Africa, men went into the forests to cut wood and began to contract yellow fever from the swarms of mosquitoes, and perhaps typhoid. Four died in June and, by September, \"so many men were dying a makeshift hospital was erected on shore\" near Cape Coast Castle. Selkirk became sick in November with the same symptoms as his crewmates. He died on 13 December 1721 along with shipmate William King, and both were buried at sea; three more died the following day.
When Daniel Defoe published *The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe* (1719), few readers could have missed the resemblance to Selkirk. An illustration on the first page of the novel shows \"a rather melancholy-looking man standing on the shore of an island, gazing inland\", in the words of the modern explorer Tim Severin. He is dressed in the familiar hirsute goatskins, his feet and shins bare. Yet Crusoe\'s island is located not in the mid-latitudes of the South Pacific but 4300 km away in the Caribbean, where the furry attire would hardly be comfortable in the tropical heat. This incongruity supports the popular belief that Selkirk was a model for the fictional character, but most literary scholars now accept that he was \"just one of many survival narratives that Defoe knew about\".
## In other literary works {#in_other_literary_works}
This is also a reference to William Cowper\'s poem. \| Poet Patrick Kavanagh likens his loneliness on the road to that of Selkirk, in his poem \"Inniskeen Road: July Evening\": \| In \"Etiquette\", one of W. S. Gilbert\'s *Bab Ballads*, Selkirk is used as a model for the English castaways: \| Joshua Slocum mentions Selkirk in the book *Sailing Alone Around the World* (1900). During his visit to the Juan Fernández Islands, Slocum runs across a marker commemorating Selkirk\'s stay.\| Diana Souhami draws on testimony from Selkirk and many others in her *Selkirk\'s Island* (2001), from a journey to rescue to arrival home and inspiration for the prolific Daniel Defoe. \| In Allan Cole and Chris Bunch\'s Sten science fiction series, Book Two, *The Wolf Worlds*, the Scottish character Alex bemoans their predicament after crash landing: {{\"\'}}A slack way for a mon,\' Alex mourned to himself. \'Ah, didnae ken Ah\'d ever been Alex Selkirk. {{\'\"}}}}
## In film {#in_film}
*Selkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe* is a stop motion film by Walter Tournier based on Selkirk\'s life. It premièred simultaneously in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay on 2 February 2012, distributed by The Walt Disney Company. It was the first full-length animated feature to be produced in Uruguay.
## Commemoration
Selkirk has been memorialized in his Scottish birthplace. Lord Aberdeen delivered a speech on 11 December 1885, after which his wife, Lady Aberdeen, unveiled a bronze statue and plaque in memory of Selkirk outside a house on the site of his original home on the Main Street of Lower Largo. David Gillies of Cardy House, Lower Largo, a descendant of the Selkirks, donated the statue created by Thomas Stuart Burnett.
The Scotsman is also remembered in his former island home. In 1869 the crew of `{{HMS|Topaze|1858|6}}`{=mediawiki} placed a bronze tablet at a spot called Selkirk\'s Lookout on a mountain of Más a Tierra, Juan Fernández Islands, to mark his stay. On 1 January 1966 Chilean president Eduardo Frei Montalva renamed Más a Tierra Robinson Crusoe Island after Defoe\'s fictional character to attract tourists. The largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, known as Más Afuera, became Alejandro Selkirk Island, although Selkirk probably never saw that island since it is located 180 km to the west.
## Archaeological findings {#archaeological_findings}
An archaeological expedition to the Juan Fernández Islands in February 2005 found part of a nautical instrument that likely belonged to Selkirk. It was \"a fragment of copper alloy identified as being from a pair of navigational dividers\" dating from the early 18th (or late 17th) century. Selkirk is the only person known to have been on the island at that time who is likely to have had dividers and was even said by Rogers to have had such instruments in his possession. The artifact was discovered while excavating a site not far from Selkirk\'s Lookout where the famous castaway is believed to have lived. In 1825, during John Howell\'s research of Alexander Selkirk\'s biography, his \"*flip-can*\" was in the possession of his great-grand-nephew John Selkirk, and Alexander\'s musket was \"in the possession of Major Lumsden of Lathallan.\"
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Ægir
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**Ægir** (anglicised as **Aegir**; Old Norse \'sea\'), **Hlér** (Old Norse \'sea\'), or **Gymir** (Old Norse less clearly \'sea, engulfer\'), is a jötunn and a personification of the sea in Norse mythology. In the Old Norse record, Ægir hosts the gods in his halls and is associated with brewing ale. Ægir is attested as married to a goddess, Rán, who also personifies the sea, and together the two produced daughters who personify waves, the Nine Daughters of Ægir and Rán, and Ægir\'s son is Snær, personified snow. Ægir may also be the father of the beautiful jötunn Gerðr, wife of the god Freyr, or these may be two separate figures who share the same name (see below and Gymir (father of Gerðr)).
One of Ægir\'s names, *Hlér*, is the namesake of the island Læsø (Old Norse *Hlésey* \'Hlér\'s island\') and perhaps also Lejre in Denmark. Scholars have long analyzed Ægir\'s role in the Old Norse corpus, and the concept of the figure has had some influence in modern popular culture.
## Names
The Old Norse name *Ægir* (\'sea\') may stem from a Proto-Germanic form *\*āg^w^i-jaz* (\'that of the river/water\'), itself a derivative of the stem *\*ahwō-* (\'river\'; cf. Gothic **aƕa** \'body of water, river\', Old English *ēa* \'stream\', Old High German *aha* \'river\'). Richard Cleasby and Guðbrandur Vigfússon saw his name as deriving from an ancient Indo-European root. Linguist Guus Kroonen argues that the Germanic stem *\*ahwō-* is probably of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin, as it may be cognate with Latin *aqua* (via a common form *\*h₂ekʷ-eh₂-*), and ultimately descend from the PIE root *\*h₂ep*- (\'water\'; cf. Sanskrit *áp-* \'water\', Tocharian *āp-* \'water, river\'). Linguist Michiel de Vaan notes that the connection between Proto-Germanic \**ahwō*- and Old Norse *Ægir* remains uncertain, and that \**ahwō-* and *aqua*, if cognates, may also be loanwords from a non-Indo-European language.
The name *Ægir* is identical to a noun for \'sea\' in skaldic poetry, itself a base word in many kennings. For instance, a ship is described as \"Ægir\'s horse\" and the waves as the \"daughters of Ægir\".
Poetic kennings in both *Hversu Noregr byggðist* (How Norway Was Settled) and *Skáldskaparmál* (The Language of Poetry) treat Ægir and the sea-jötunn Hlér, who lives on the Hlésey (\'Hlér island\', modern Læsø), as the same figure.
The meaning of the Old Norse name *Gymir* is unclear. Proposed translations include \'the earthly\' (from Old Norse *gumi*), \'the wintry one\' (from *gemla*), or \'the protector\', the \'engulfer\' (from *geyma*). (For more on this topic, see discussion below)
## Attestations
Ægir is attested in a variety of Old Norse sources.
### *Sonatorrek*
Ægir and Rán receive mention in the poem *Sonatorrek* attributed to 10th century Icelandic skald Egill Skallagrímsson. In the poem, Egill laments the death of his son Böðvar, who drowned at sea during a storm. In one difficult stanza, the skald expresses the pain of losing his son by invoking the image of slaying the personified sea, personified as Ægir (Old Norse *ǫlsmið\[r\]* \'ale-smith\') and Rán (*Ægis man* \'Ægir\'s wife\'):
+----------------------+--------------------------------------+---+
| : Veiztu um ϸá sǫk | : You know, | |
| : sverði of rækak, | : if I took revenge with the sword | |
| : var ǫlsmið\[r\] | : for that offence, | |
| : allra tíma; | : Ægir would be dead; | |
| : hroða vágs brœðr | : if I could kill them, | |
| : ef vega mættak; | : I would fight Ægir and Rán. | |
| : fœra ek andvígr | | |
| : Ægis mani. | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------------+---+
The skald later references Ægir by way of the kenning \'Hlér\'s fire\' (*Hlés viti*), meaning gold.
### *Poetic Edda* {#poetic_edda}
In the *Poetic Edda*, Ægir receives mention in the eddic poems *Grímnismál*, *Hymiskviða*, *Lokasenna*, and in the prose section of *Helgakviða Hundingsbana I*. In *Grímnismál*, the disguised god Odin references Ægir\'s status as a renowned host among the gods:
: \'Fleeting visions I have now revealed before the victory-gods\'s sons,
: now the wished-for protection will awaken;
: to the all the Æsir it will become known,
: on Ægir\'s benches,
: at Ægir\'s feast.\'
In *Hymiskviða*, Ægir plays a major role. In the poem, the gods have become thirsty after a successful hunt, and are keen to celebrate with drink. They \"shook the twigs and looked at the augury\" and \"found that at Ægir\'s was an ample choice of cauldrons\". Odin goes to Ægir, who he finds sitting in good cheer, and tells him he shall \"often prepare a feast for the Æsir\". Referring to Ægir as a jötunn, the poem describes how, now annoyed, Ægir hatches a plan: He asks Thor to fetch a particular cauldron, and that with it he could brew ale for them all. The gods are unable to find a cauldron of a size big enough to meet Ægir\'s request until the god Týr recommends one he knows of far away, setting the stage for the events of the rest of the poem.
According to the prose introduction to *Lokasenna*, \"Ægir, who is also called Gymir\", was hosting a feast \"with the great cauldron which has just been told about\", which many of the gods and elves attended. The prose introduction describes the feast as featuring gold that shimmers like fire light and ale that serves itself, and that \"it was a great place of peace\". In attendance also were Ægir\'s servers, Fimafeng and Eldir. The gods praise the excellence of their service and, hearing this, Loki murders Fimafeng, enraging the gods, who chase him out to the woods before returning to drink.
In the poem that follows the prose introduction (and in accompanying prose), Loki returns to the hall and greets Eldir: He says that before Eldir steps forward, he should first tell him what the gods are discussing in the hall. Eldir says that they\'re discussing weaponry and war, and having nothing good to say about Loki. Loki says that he will enter Ægir\'s halls and have a look at the feast, and with him bring quarrel and strife. Eldir notifies Loki that if he enters and causes trouble, he can expect them to return it to him. Loki enters the hall and the gods see him and become silent.
In *Helgakviða Hundingsbana I*, a great wave is referred to as \"Ægir\'s terrible daughter\".
### *Prose Edda* {#prose_edda}
Ægir receives numerous mentions in the *Prose Edda* book *Skáldskaparmál*, where he sits at a banquet and asks the skaldic god Bragi many questions, and Bragi responds with narratives about the gods. The section begins as follows:
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
| : Anthony Faulkes translation (1987): | : Andy Orchard translation (1997): | : J. Lindow translation (2002): | |
| : There was a person whose name was Ægir or Hler. He lived on an island which is now called Hlesey. He was very skilled in magic. He set out to visit Asgard, and when the Æsir became aware of his movements, he was given a great welcome, though many things had deceptive appearances. | | : A man was named Ægir or Hlér; he lived on that island which is now called Hlér\'s Island. He had much magic knowledge. He made his way to Ásgard, but the æsir knew of his journey in advance. He was well received, but many things were done with illusions. | |
| | There was a figure called Ægir or Hlér; he lived on an island, which is now called Hléysey. He was very crafty in magic. He set off to visit Ásgard, and when the Æsir realized he was coming, he was given a splen did welcome, although many things were not as they seemed; | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
Beyond this section of *Skáldskaparmál*, Ægir receives several other mentions in kennings. Section 25 provides examples for \'sea\', including \'visitor of the gods\', \'husband of Rán\', \'father of Ægir\'s daughters\', \'land of Rán and Ægir\'s daughters\'. Kennings cited to skalds in this section include \'the storm-happy daughters of Ægir\' meaning \'waves\' (Svein) and a kenning in a fragment of a work by the 11th century Icelandic skald Hofgarða-Refr Gestsson, where Rán is referred to as \'Gymir\'s \... völva\': `{{blockquote|
<small>Anthony Faulkes translation</small>
:And as Ref said:
::Gymir's spray-cold spæ-wife often brings the twisted-rope-bear [ship] into Ægir's jaws [under the waves] where the wave breaks.<ref name="FAULKES-1995-91-140">{{harvnb|Faulkes|1995|p=91}}. This stanza appears quoted a second time later in ''Skáldskaparmál'', for which see {{harvnb|Faulkes|1995|p=140}}.</ref>
}}`{=mediawiki} The section\'s author comments that the stanza \"\[implies\] that they are all the same, Ægir and Hler and Gymir.
Chapter 33b of *Skáldskaparmál* discusses why skalds may refer to gold as \"Ægir\'s fire\". The section traces the kenning to a narrative surrounding Ægir, in which the jötunn employs \"glowing gold\" in the center of his hall to light it \"like fire\" (which the narrator compares to flaming swords in Valhalla). The section explains that \"Ran is the name of Ægir\'s wife, and the names of their nine daughters are as was written above \... Then the Æsir discovered that Ran had a net in which she caught everyone that went to sea \... so this is the story of the origin of gold being called fire or light or brightness of Ægir, Ran or Ægir\'s daughters, and from such kennings the practice has now developed of calling gold fire of the sea and of all terms for it, since Ægir and Ran\'s names are also terms for the sea, and hence gold is now called fire of lakes or rivers and of all river-names.\"
In chapter 61 provides yet more kennings. Among them the author notes that \"Ran, who, it is said, was Ægir\'s wife\" and that \"the daughters of Ægir and Ran are nine\". In chapter 75, Ægir occurs in a list of jötnar.
### Saga corpus {#saga_corpus}
In what appears to be a Norwegian genealogical tradition, Ægir is portrayed as one of the three elements among the sea, the fire and the wind. The beginning of the *Orkneyinga saga* (\'Saga of the Orkney Islanders\') and *Hversu Noregr byggdisk* (\'How Norway Was Settled\') tell that the jötunn king Fornjót had three sons: Hlér (\'sea\'), whom he called Ægir, a second named Logi (\'fire\'), and a third called Kári (\'wind\').
## Scholarly reception and interpretation {#scholarly_reception_and_interpretation}
### Banquets
Carolyne Larrington says that Ægir\'s role in *Hymiskviða* \"may reflect Scandinavian royal practices in which the king enforces his authority on his subordinates by visiting their homes and demanding to be feasted\". According to Andy Orchard, Ægir\'s role in *Skáldskaparmál*, where he attends a banquet rather than hosting it, could be a deliberate inversion of the traditional motif of Ægir as host.
### Gymir
The name *Gymir* may indicate that Ægir was understood as the father of the beautiful jötunn Gerðr; they may also have been two different figures sharing the same name (see Gymir, father of Gerðr). Both the prose introduction to *Lokasenna* and *Skáldskaparmál* state that Ægir is also known as *Gymir*, the father of the jötunn Gerðr. Rudolf Simek argues that, if understood to be two different entities, this may stem from an erroneous interpretation of kennings in which different jötunn-names are used interchangeably.
### Hlér, Læsø, Lejre, and Snow {#hlér_læsø_lejre_and_snow}
As highlighted above in *Skáldskaparmál*, the name of the island Læsø in Denmark references Hlér (Old Norse *Hléysey* \'Hlér\'s Island\'). Simek speculates that Hlér may therefore have been seen as something of an ancestor of the island.
Some medieval Danish chronicles mention Hler and connect him with a figure named Snær (Old Norse \'snow\'). In the Latin-language *Chronicon Lethrense* (\"Chronicle of Lejre\"; the name *Lejre* may, like *Læsø*, derive from Hler) and Old Danish *Gesta Danorum på danskæ*, a giant named Lae (or Lee) who lived on the island of Leshø had a shepherd named Snyo (or Snio, from Old Norse *Snær* \'Snow\'). When Raka, the dog king of the Danes had died, Lae sent Snyo to win the kingship of Denmark from King Athisl of Sweden, which he did. King Snyo was cruel to his subjects, and only a man named Røth (or Roth) would stand up to him. Snyo sent Røth to Lae\'s island to ask Lae how King Snyo would die, but expecting that Røth would die in the attempt. Lae refused to answer Røth\'s request until Røth had said three truthful things. Røth said that he had never seen thicker walls on a house than on Lae\'s, that he had never seen a man with so many heads as Lae, and that if he got away from there, he would never long to be back. Lae therefore released Røth and prophesied that Snyo would die from being bitten to death by lice. In the *Chronicon Lethrense*, Røth only announces this in Snyo\'s court before lice erupt from Snyo\'s nostrils and ears to eat him to death; in the *Gesta Danorum på danskæ*, Lae gives Røth a pair of gloves for Snyo, who is eaten to death by lice when he pulls them on.
### Jötunn
Scholars have often discussed Ægir\'s role as host to the gods and his description as a jötunn. Anthony Faulkes observes that Ægir is \"often described by modern writers as god of the sea\" yet that he is nowhere described as a god in the *Prose Edda* and appears in a list of jötnar in *Skáldskaparmál*. According to John Lindow, since his wife Rán is listed among the Ásynjur (goddesses) in the same part of the *Prose Edda*, and since he had a close and friendly relationship with the Æsir (gods), Ægir\'s description as a jötunn appears questionable. Andy Orchard argues on the contrary that Ægir\'s inclusion among the Æsir is probably a late development since his daughters are described as jötnar and some sources mention him as the descendant of the jötunn Fornjót. According to Rudolf Simek, while attested as a jötunn, Ægir \"has characteristics\" of a sea god.
## Modern influence {#modern_influence}
Ægir has been the subject of a variety of art pieces. These include Nils Blommér\'s painting *Näcken och Ägirs döttrar* (1850), Johan Peter Molin\'s (d. 1874) fountain relief *Ægir*, and Emil Doepler\'s *Ægir* (1901).
Ægir is referenced in a variety of others ways in modern popular culture. For example, Shoto Todoroki from the Japanese anime \"Boku no hero academia\" has a move titled \"Great Glacial Aegir\". He is also the namesake of a Norwegian corvette produced in 1967 (*Ægir*), a coastal defense ship in the Imperial German Navy, and of an exoplanet, Epsilon Eridani b.
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**Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe** (27 September 1818 -- 25 November 1884) was a German chemist and academic, and a major contributor to the birth of modern organic chemistry. He was a professor at Marburg and Leipzig. Kolbe was the first to apply the term synthesis in a chemical context, and contributed to the philosophical demise of vitalism through synthesis of the organic substance acetic acid from carbon disulfide, and also contributed to the development of structural theory. This was done via modifications to the idea of \"radicals\" and accurate prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols, and to the emerging array of organic reactions through his Kolbe electrolysis of carboxylate salts, the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction in the preparation of aspirin and the Kolbe nitrile synthesis. After studies with Wöhler and Bunsen, Kolbe was involved with the early internationalization of chemistry through work in London (with Frankland). He was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and won the Royal Society of London\'s Davy Medal in the year of his death. Despite these accomplishments and his training important members of the next generation of chemists (including Zaitsev, Curtius, Beckmann, Graebe, Markovnikov, and others), Kolbe is best remembered for editing the *Journal für Praktische Chemie* for more than a decade, in which his vituperative essays on Kekulé\'s structure of benzene, van\'t Hoff\'s theory on the origin of chirality and Baeyer\'s reforms of nomenclature were personally critical and linguistically violent. Kolbe died of a heart attack in Leipzig at age 66, six years after the death of his wife, Charlotte.
## Life
Kolbe was born in Elliehausen, near Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover (Germany) as the eldest son of a Protestant pastor. At the age of 13, he entered the Göttingen Gymnasium, residing at the home of one of the professors. He obtained the leaving certificate (the Abitur) six years later. He had become passionate about the study of chemistry, matriculating at the University of Göttingen in the spring of 1838 in order to study with the famous chemist Friedrich Wöhler.
In 1842, he became an assistant to Robert Bunsen at the Philipps-Universität Marburg. He took his doctoral degree in 1843 at the same university. A new opportunity arose in 1845, when he became assistant to Lyon Playfair at the new *Museum of Economic Geology* in London and a close friend of Edward Frankland. From 1847, he was engaged in editing the *Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie* (*Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry*) edited by Justus von Liebig, Wöhler, and Johann Christian Poggendorff, and he also wrote an important textbook. In 1851, Kolbe succeeded Bunsen as professor of chemistry at Marburg and, in 1865, he was called to the Universität Leipzig. In 1864, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1874.
In 1853, he married Charlotte, the daughter of General-Major Wilhelm von Bardeleben. His wife died in 1876 after 23 years of happy marriage. They had four children.
## Work in chemical research {#work_in_chemical_research}
As late as the 1840s, and despite Friedrich Wöhler\'s synthesis of urea in 1828, some chemists still believed in the doctrine of vitalism, according to which a special life-force was necessary to create \"organic\" (i.e., in its original meaning, biologically derived) compounds. Kolbe promoted the idea that organic compounds could be derived from substances clearly sourced from outside this \"organic\" context, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. (Hence, while by modern definitions, he was converting one organic molecule to another, by the parlance of his era, he was converting \"inorganic\"---*anorganisch*---substances into \"organic\" ones only thought accessible through vital processes.) He validated his theory by converting carbon disulfide (CS~2~) to acetic acid (`{{Chem2|CH3COOH}}`{=mediawiki}) in several steps (1843--45). Kolbe also introduced a modified idea of structural radicals, so contributing to the development of structural theory. A dramatic success came when his theoretical prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols was confirmed by the synthesis of the first of these classes of organic molecules. Kolbe was the first person to use the word synthesis in its present-day meaning, and contributed a number of new chemical reactions.
In particular, Kolbe developed procedures for the electrolysis of the salts of fatty and other carboxylic acids (Kolbe electrolysis)`{{primary source inline|date=July 2014}}`{=mediawiki} and prepared salicylic acid, a building block of aspirin in a process called Kolbe synthesis or Kolbe-Schmitt reaction. His method for the synthesis of nitriles is called the Kolbe nitrile synthesis, and with Edward Frankland he found that nitriles can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids. In addition to his own bench research and scholarly and editorial work, Kolbe oversaw student research at Leipzig and especially at Marburg; students spending time under his tutelage included Peter Griess, Aleksandr Mikhailovich Zaitsev (known for Zaitsev\'s rule predicting the product composition of elimination reactions), Theodor Curtius (discoverer of diazo compounds, hydrazines, and the Curtius rearrangement), Ernst Otto Beckmann (discoverer of the Beckmann rearrangement), Carl Graebe (discoverer of alizarin), Oscar Loew, Constantin Fahlberg, Nikolai Menshutkin, Vladimir Markovnikov (first to describe carbocycles smaller and larger than cyclohexane, and known for Markovnikov\'s rule describing addition reactions to alkenes), Jacob Volhard, Ludwig Mond, Alexander Crum Brown (first to describe the double bond of ethylene), Maxwell Simpson, and Frederick Guthrie.
## Work as journal editor {#work_as_journal_editor}
Besides his work for periodicals he wrote numerous books Kolbe served for more than a decade as what, in modern terms, would be understood the senior editor of the *Journal für Praktische Chemie* (*Journal of practical chemistry*, from 1870 to 1884), Kolbe was sometimes so severely critical of the work of others, especially after about 1874, that some wondered whether he might have been suffering a mental illness. He was intolerant of what he regarded as loose speculation parading as theory, and sought through his writings to save his beloved science of chemistry from what he regarded as the scourge of modern structural theory.
His rejection of structural chemistry, especially the theories of the structure of benzene by August Kekulé, the theory of the asymmetric carbon atom by J.H. van\'t Hoff, and the reform of chemical nomenclature by Adolf von Baeyer, was expressed in his vituperative articles in the *Journal für Praktische Chemie*. Some translated quotes illustrate his manner of articulating the deep conflict between his interpretation of chemistry and that of the structural chemists:
> «*\...Baeyer is an excellent experimentor, but he is only an empiricist, lacking sense and capability, and his interpretations of his experiments show particular deficiency in his familiarity with the principles of true science\...»*
The violence of his language worked to limit his posthumous reputation.
## Publications
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Allomorph
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In linguistics, an **allomorph** is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or in other words, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term *allomorph* describes the realization of phonological variations for a specific morpheme. The different allomorphs that a morpheme can become are governed by morphophonemic rules. These phonological rules determine what phonetic form, or specific pronunciation, a morpheme will take based on the phonological or morphological context in which it appears.
Allomorphy in English involves the variation of morphemes in their phonetic form based on specific linguistic contexts, a phenomenon governed by morphophonemic rules. For instance, the past tense morpheme \"-ed\" can manifest in different forms---\[-əd\], \[-t\], or \[-d\]---depending on the final sound of the verb stem. This variability is not random but follows predictable patterns, such as the insertion of a schwa \[ə\] or assimilation to the voicing of the preceding consonant. Similarly, English plural morphemes exhibit three allomorphs: \[-s\], \[-z\], and \[-əz\], with pronunciation determined by the final sound of the noun, whether it be a voiceless consonant, a voiced consonant, or a sibilant. In addition, negative prefixes like \"in-\" display allomorphy, changing from \[ɪn-\] to \[ɪŋ-\] or \[ɪm-\] depending on the following consonant\'s place of articulation. This systematic variation reflects the intricate relationship between phonology and morphology in language, with allomorph selection being guided by both phonological environment and morphological constraints (Pak, 2016; Stanton, 2022).
## In English {#in_english}
English has several morphemes that vary in sound but not in meaning, such as past tense morphemes, plural morphemes, and negative morphemes.
### Past tense allomorphs {#past_tense_allomorphs}
For example, an English past tense morpheme is *-ed*, which occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment by assimilating the voicing of the previous segment or the insertion of a schwa after an alveolar stop. A possible set of assimilations is:
- as `{{IPA|[-əd]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[-ɪd]}}`{=mediawiki} in verbs whose stem ends with the alveolar stops `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki}, such as \'hunted\' `{{IPA|[hʌntɪd]}}`{=mediawiki} or \'banded\' `{{IPA|[bændɪd]}}`{=mediawiki}
- as `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} in verbs whose stem ends with voiceless phonemes other than `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki}, such as \'fished\' `{{IPA|[fɪʃt]}}`{=mediawiki}
- as `{{IPA|[-d]}}`{=mediawiki} in verbs whose stem ends with voiced phonemes other than `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki}, such as \'buzzed\' `{{IPA|[bʌzd]}}`{=mediawiki}
The \"other than\" restrictions above are typical for allomorphy. If the allomorphy conditions are ordered from most restrictive (in this case, after an alveolar stop) to least restrictive, the first matching case usually has precedence. Thus, the above conditions could be rewritten as follows:
- as `{{IPA|[-əd]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[-ɪd]}}`{=mediawiki} when the stem ends with the alveolar stops `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki}
- as `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} when the stem ends with voiceless phonemes
- as `{{IPA|[-d]}}`{=mediawiki} elsewhere
The `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph does not appear after stem-final `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} although the latter is voiceless, which is then explained by `{{IPA|[-əd]}}`{=mediawiki} appearing in that environment, together with the fact that the environments are ordered (that is, listed in order of priority). Likewise, the `{{IPA|[-d]}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph does not appear after stem-final `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki} because the earlier clause for the `{{IPA|/-əd/}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph has priority. The `{{IPA|/-d/}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph does not appear after stem-final voiceless phoneme because the preceding clause for the `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} comes first.
Irregular past tense forms, such as \"broke\" or \"was/were,\" can be seen as still more specific cases since they are confined to certain lexical items, such as the verb \"break,\" which take priority over the general cases listed above.
### Plural allomorphs {#plural_allomorphs}
The plural morpheme for regular nouns in English is typically realized by adding an *-s* or *-es* to the end of the noun. However, the plural morpheme actually has three different allomorphs: \[-s\], \[-z\], and \[-əz\]. The specific pronunciation that a plural morpheme takes on is determined by a set of morphological rules such as the following:
- assume that the basic form of the plural morpheme, /-z/, is \[-z\] (\"bags\" /bægz/)
- the morpheme /-z/ becomes \[-əz\] by inserting an \[ə\] before \[-z\] when a noun ends in a sibilant (\"buses\" /bʌsəz/)
- change the morpheme /-z/ to a voiceless \[-s\] when a noun ends in a voiceless sound (\"caps\" /kæps/)
### Negative allomorphs {#negative_allomorphs}
In English, the negative prefix *in-* has three allomorphs: \[ɪn-\], \[ɪŋ-\], and \[ɪm-\]. The phonetic form that the negative morpheme /ɪn-/ uses is determined by a set of morphological rules; for example:
- the negative morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes \[ɪn-\] when preceding an alveolar consonant (\"intolerant\"/ɪnˈtɔlərənt/)
- the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes \[ɪŋ-\] before a velar consonant (\"incongruous\" /ɪŋˈkɔŋgruəs/)
- the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes \[ɪm-\] before a bilabial consonant (\"improper\" /ɪmˈprɔpər/)
## In Sámi languages {#in_sámi_languages}
The Sámi languages have a trochaic pattern of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. The vowels and consonants that are allowed in an unstressed syllable differ from those that are allowed in a stressed syllable. Consequently, every suffix and inflectional ending has two forms, and the form that is used depends on the stress pattern of the word to which it is attached. For example, Northern Sámi has the causative verb suffix -*hit/-ahttit* in which *-*hit** is selected when it would be the third syllable (and the preceding verb has two syllables), and *-*ahttit** is selected when it would be the third and the fourth syllables (and the preceding verb has three syllables):
- **goar·ru\'\'\'t\'\'\'** has two syllables and so when suffixed, the result is **goa·ru\'\'\'·hit\'\'\'**.
- has three syllables and so when suffixed, the result is **na·nos·m\'\'\'ah·ttit\'\'\'**.
The same applies to inflectional patterns in the Sami languages as well, which are divided into even stems and odd stems.
## Stem allomorphy {#stem_allomorphy}
Allomorphy can also exist in stems or roots, as in Classical Sanskrit:
**Singular** **Plural**
-------------- -------------- ------------
Nominative
Genitive
Instrumental
Locative
: **Vāk** (voice)
There are three allomorphs of the stem, `{{IPA|/vaːk/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/vaːt͡ʃ/}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{IPA|/vaːɡ/}}`{=mediawiki}, which are conditioned by the particular case-marking suffixes.
The form of the stem `{{IPA|/vaːk/}}`{=mediawiki}, found in the nominative singular and locative plural, is the etymological form of the morpheme. Pre-Indic palatalization of velars resulted in the variant form `{{IPA|/vaːt͡ʃ/}}`{=mediawiki}, which was initially phonologically conditioned. The conditioning can still be seen in the locative singular form, for which the `{{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}`{=mediawiki} is followed by the high front vowel `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki}.
However, the subsequent merging of `{{IPA|/e/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/o/}}`{=mediawiki} into `{{IPA|/a/}}`{=mediawiki} made the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds in the genitive case (both singular and plural) as well as the nominative plural and the instrumental singular. Thus, allomorphy was no longer directly relatable to phonological processes.
Phonological conditioning also accounts for the `{{IPA|/vaːɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} form in the instrumental plural, in which the `{{IPA|/ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} assimilates in voicing to the following `{{IPA|/bʱ/}}`{=mediawiki}.
## History
The term was originally used to describe variations in chemical structure. It was first applied to language (in writing) in 1948, by Fatih Şat and Sibel Merve in Language XXIV.
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Allophone
|
`{{IPA notice}}`{=mediawiki} In phonology, an **allophone** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ə|f|oʊ|n|audio=En-us-allophone.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; from the Greek *ἄλλος*, `{{Transliteration|grc|állos}}`{=mediawiki}, \'other\' and *φωνή*, `{{Transliteration|grc|phōnē}}`{=mediawiki}, \'voice, sound\') is one of multiple possible spoken sounds`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}or *phones*`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, the voiceless plosive `{{IPAblink|t}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *stop* `{{IPA|[ˈstɒp]}}`{=mediawiki}) and the aspirated form `{{IPAblink|tʰ}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *top* `{{IPA|[ˈtʰɒp]}}`{=mediawiki}) are allophones for the phoneme `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki}, while these two are considered to be different phonemes in some languages such as Central Thai. Similarly, in Spanish, `{{IPAblink|d}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *dolor* `{{IPA|es|doˈloɾ|}}`{=mediawiki}) and `{{IPAblink|ð}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *nada* `{{IPA|es|ˈnaða|}}`{=mediawiki}) are allophones for the phoneme `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki}, while these two are considered to be different phonemes in English (as in the difference between *dare* and *there*).
The specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, with such allophones being called **positional variants**, but some allophones occur in free variation. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme usually does not change the meaning of a word, but the result may sound non-native or even unintelligible.
Native speakers of a given language perceive one phoneme in the language as a single distinctive sound and are \"both unaware of and even shocked by\" the allophone variations that are used to pronounce single phonemes.
## History of concept {#history_of_concept}
The term \"allophone\" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf circa 1929. In doing so, he is thought to have placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition.
## Complementary and free-variant allophones {#complementary_and_free_variant_allophones}
Each time a speaker vocalizes a phoneme, they pronounce it differently from previous iterations. There is debate regarding how real and universal phonemes are (see phoneme for details). Only some of the variation is perceptible to listeners speakers.
There are two types of allophones: complementary allophones and free-variant allophones.
Complementary allophones are not interchangeable. If context requires a speaker to use a specific allophone for a given phoneme (that is, using a different allophone would confuse listeners), the possible allophones are said to be *complementary*. Each allophone from a complementary set is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process.
Otherwise, allophones are *free-variant*; speakers choose an allophone by habit or preference.
## Allotone
An **allotone** is a tonic allophone, such as the neutral tone in Standard Mandarin.
## Examples
### English
There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.
- Aspiration: In English, a voiceless plosive `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} is aspirated (has a strong explosion of breath) if it is at the beginning of the first or a stressed syllable in a word. For example, `{{IPA|[pʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *pin* and `{{IPA|[p]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *spin* are allophones for the phoneme `{{IPA|/p/}}`{=mediawiki} because they cannot be used to distinguish words (in fact, they occur in complementary distribution). English-speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different: the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Many languages treat the two phones differently.
- Nasal plosion: In English, a plosive (`{{IPA|/p, t, k, b, d, ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki}) has nasal plosion if it is followed by a nasal, whether within a word or across a word boundary.
- Partial devoicing of sonorants: In English, sonorants (`{{IPA|/j, w, l, r, m, n/}}`{=mediawiki}) are partially devoiced after a voiceless sound in the same syllable.
- Complete devoicing of sonorants: In English, a sonorant is completely devoiced after an aspirated plosive (`{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki}).
- Partial devoicing of obstruents: In English, a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound within a word or across a word boundary.
- Retraction: In English, `{{IPA|/t, d, n, l/}}`{=mediawiki} are retracted before `{{IPA|/r/}}`{=mediawiki}.
Because the choice among allophones is seldom under conscious control, few people realize their existence. English-speakers may be unaware of differences between a number of (dialect-dependent) allophones of the phoneme `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki}:
- post-aspirated `{{IPA|[tʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *top*,
- unaspirated `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *stop*.
- glottalized (or rather substituted by the glottal stop) `{{IPA|[ʔ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *button*, but many speakers preserve at least an unreleased coronal stop `{{IPA|[ t̚]}}`{=mediawiki}.
In addition, the following allophones of /t/ are found in (at least) some dialects of American(ised) English;
- flapped `{{IPA|[ɾ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in American English *water*,
- nasal(ized) flapped `{{IPA|[ɾ̃]}}`{=mediawiki} as in American English *winter*.
- unreleased `{{IPA|[ t̚]}}`{=mediawiki} as in American English *cat*, but other dialects preserve the released `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki}, or substitute the glottal stop `{{IPA|[ʔ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
However, speakers may become aware of the differences if`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}for example`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}they contrast the pronunciations of the following words:
- *Night rate*: unreleased `{{IPA|[ˈnʌɪt̚.ɹʷeɪt̚]}}`{=mediawiki} (without a word space between `{{IPA|[ . ]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[ɹ]}}`{=mediawiki})
- *Nitrate*: aspirated `{{IPA|[ˈnaɪ.tʰɹ̥eɪt̚]}}`{=mediawiki} or retracted `{{IPA|[ˈnaɪ.t̠ɹ̠̊˔ʷeɪt̚]}}`{=mediawiki}
A flame that is held in front of the lips while those words are spoken flickers more for the aspirated *nitrate* than for the unaspirated *night rate.* The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin-speaker, for whom `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/tʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than for an English-speaker, who has learned since childhood to ignore the distinction.
One may notice the (dialect-dependent) allophones of English `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki} such as the (palatal) alveolar \"light\" `{{IPA|[l]}}`{=mediawiki} of *leaf* `{{IPA|[ˈliːf]}}`{=mediawiki} as opposed to the velar alveolar \"dark\" `{{IPA|[ɫ]}}`{=mediawiki} in *feel* `{{IPA|[ˈfiːɫ]}}`{=mediawiki} found in the U.S. and Southern England. The difference is much more obvious to a Turkish-speaker, for whom `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/ɫ/}}`{=mediawiki} are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme.
These descriptions are more sequentially broken down in the next section.
#### Rules for English consonant allophones {#rules_for_english_consonant_allophones}
Peter Ladefoged, a renowned phonetician, clearly explains the consonant allophones of English in a precise list of statements to illustrate the language behavior. Some of these rules apply to all the consonants of English; the first item on the list deals with consonant length, items 2 through 18 apply to only selected groups of consonants, and the last item deals with the quality of a consonant. These descriptive rules are as follows:
1. Consonants are longer when they come at the end of a phrase. This can be easily tested by recording a speaker saying a sound like \"bib\", then comparing the forward and backward playback of the recording. One will find that the backward playback does not sound like the forward playback because the production of what is expected to be the same sound is not identical.
2. Voiceless stops `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} are aspirated when they come at the beginning of a syllable, such as in words like \"pip, test, kick\" `{{IPA|[pʰɪp, tʰɛst, kʰɪk]}}`{=mediawiki}. We can compare this with voiceless stops that are not syllable initial like \"stop\" \[stɑp\]. The `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} voiceless stop follows the `{{IPA|/s/}}`{=mediawiki} (fricative) here.
3. Voiced obstruents, which include stops and fricatives, such as `{{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ/}}`{=mediawiki}, that come at the end of an utterance like `{{IPA|/v/}}`{=mediawiki} in \"improve\" or before a voiceless sound like `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki} in \"add two\") are only briefly voiced during the articulation.
4. Voiced stops and affricates `{{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/}}`{=mediawiki} in fact occur as partially devoiced at the beginning of a syllable unless immediately preceded by a voiced sound, in which the voiced sound carries over.
5. Approximants (in English, these include `{{IPA|/w, r, j, l/}}`{=mediawiki}) are partially devoiced when they occur after syllable-initial `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} like in \"play, twin, cue\" `{{IPA|[pʰl̥eɪ, tʰw̥ɪn, kʰj̥u]}}`{=mediawiki}.
6. Voiceless stops `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} are not aspirated when following after a syllable initial fricative, such as in the words \"spew, stew, skew.\"
7. Voiceless stops and affricates `{{IPA|/p, t, k, tʃ/}}`{=mediawiki} are longer than their voiced counterparts `{{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/}}`{=mediawiki} when situated at the end of a syllable. Try comparing \"cap\" to \"cab\" or \"back\" to \"bag\".
8. When a stop comes before another stop, the explosion of air only follows after the second stop, illustrated in words like \"apt\" `{{IPA|[æp̚t]}}`{=mediawiki} and \"rubbed\" `{{IPA|[rʌb̚d]}}`{=mediawiki}.
9. Many English accents produce a glottal stop in syllables that end with voiceless stops. Some examples include pronunciations of \"tip, pit, kick\" `{{IPA|[tʰɪʔp, pʰɪʔt, kʰɪʔk]}}`{=mediawiki}.
10. Some accents of English use a glottal stop in place of a `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} when it comes before an alveolar nasal in the same word (as opposed to in the next word), such as in the word \"beaten\" `{{IPA|[ˈbiːʔn̩]}}`{=mediawiki}.
11. Nasals become syllabic, or their own syllable, only when immediately following an obstruent (as opposed to just any consonant), such as in the words \"leaden, chasm\" `{{IPA|[ˈlɛdn̩, ˈkæzm̩]}}`{=mediawiki}. Take in comparison \"kiln, film\"; in most accents of English, the nasals are not syllabic.
12. The lateral `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki}, however, is syllabic at the end of the word when immediately following any consonant, like in \"paddle, whistle\" `{{IPA|[ˈpʰædl̩, ˈwɪsl̩]}}`{=mediawiki}.
1. When considering `{{IPA|/r, l/}}`{=mediawiki} as liquids, `{{IPA|/r/}}`{=mediawiki} is included in this rule as well as present in the words \"sabre, razor, hammer, tailor\" `{{IPA|[ˈseɪbɹ̩, ˈreɪzɹ̩, ˈhæmɹ̩, ˈtʰeɪlɹ̩]}}`{=mediawiki}.
13. Alveolar stops become voiced taps when they occur between two vowels, as long as the second vowel is unstressed. Take for instance mainly American English pronunciations like \"fatty, data, daddy, many\" `{{IPA|[ˈfæɾi, ˈdeɪɾə, ˈdæɾi, ˈmɛɾ̃i]}}`{=mediawiki}.
1. When an alveolar nasal is followed by a stop, the `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} is lost and a nasal tap occurs, causing \"winter\" to sound just like \"winner\" or \"panting\" to sound just like \"panning\". In this case, both alveolar stops and alveolar nasal plus stop sequences become voiced taps after two vowels when the second vowel is unstressed. This can vary among speakers, where the rule does not apply to certain words or when speaking at a slower pace.
14. All alveolar consonants assimilate to dentals when occurring before a dental. Take the words \"eighth, tenth, wealth\". This also applies across word boundaries, for example \"at this\" `{{IPA|[ˈæt̪ ðɪs]}}`{=mediawiki}.
15. Alveolar stops are reduced or omitted when between two consonants. Some examples include \"most people\" (can be written either as `{{IPA|[ˈmoʊs ˈpʰipl̩]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[ˈmoʊst ˈpʰipl̩]}}`{=mediawiki} with the IPA, where the `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} is inaudible, and \"sand paper, grand master\", where the `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki} is inaudible.
16. A consonant is shortened when it is before an identical consonant, such as in \"big game\" or \"top post\".
17. A homorganic voiceless stop may be inserted after a nasal before a voiceless fricative followed by an unstressed vowel in the same word. For example, a bilabial voiceless plosive `{{IPA|/p/}}`{=mediawiki} can be detected in the word \"something\" `{{IPA|[ˈsʌmpθɪŋ]}}`{=mediawiki} even though it is orthographically not indicated. This is known as epenthesis. However, the following vowel must be unstressed.
18. Velar stops `{{IPA|/k, ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} become more front when the following vowel sound in the same syllable becomes more front. Compare for instance \"cap\" `{{IPA|[kʰæp]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"key\" `{{IPA|[kʲi]}}`{=mediawiki} and \"gap\" `{{IPA|[ɡæp]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"geese\" `{{IPA|[ɡʲiːs]}}`{=mediawiki}.
19. The lateral `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki} is velarized at the end of a word when it comes after a vowel as well as before a consonant. Compare for example \"life\" `{{IPA|[laɪf]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"file\" `{{IPA|[faɪɫ]}}`{=mediawiki} or \"feeling\" `{{IPA|[fiːlɪŋ]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"feel\" `{{IPA|[fiːɫ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Other languages {#other_languages}
There are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation: examples are Hawaiian and Pirahã. Here are some examples (the links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon):
- Consonant allophones
- Final devoicing, particularly final-obstruent devoicing: Arapaho, English, Nahuatl, Catalan and many others
- Voicing of initial consonant
- Anticipatory assimilation
- Aspiration changes: Algonquin
- Frication between vowels: Dahalo
- Lenition: Manx, Corsican
- Voicing of clicks: Dahalo
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- - Allophones for `{{IPA|/b/}}`{=mediawiki}: Arapaho, Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki}: Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/f/}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/j/}}`{=mediawiki}: Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/k/}}`{=mediawiki}: Manam
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/pʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}: Garhwali
- and `{{IPAblink|q}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones: a number of Arabic dialects
- and `{{IPA|[n]}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones: Some dialects of Hawaiian, and some of Mandarin (e.g. Southwestern and Lower Yangtze)
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/n/}}`{=mediawiki}
- : Finnish, Spanish and many more.
- wide range of variation in Japanese (as archiphoneme /N/)
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/r/}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali, Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPAslink|ɽ}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/s/}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali, Taos
- and `{{IPAblink|k}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones: Hawaiian
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/w/}}`{=mediawiki}:
- and `{{IPA|[w]}}`{=mediawiki}: Hindustani, Hawaiian
- fricative `{{IPAblink|β}}`{=mediawiki} before unrounded vowels: O\'odham
- Allophones for `{{IPAslink|z}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali
- Vowel allophones
- and `{{IPA|[o]}}`{=mediawiki} are allophones of `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki} in closed final syllables in Malay`{{specify|reason=Malay has so many dialects|date=October 2024}}`{=mediawiki} and Portuguese, while `{{IPA|[ɪ]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[ʊ]}}`{=mediawiki} are allophones of `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki} in Indonesian.
- as allophones for short `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{IPA|[<nowiki/>[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]], [[Near-close front unrounded vowel|ɪ]], e̞, [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]]}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones for short `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} in various Arabic dialects (long `{{IPA|/uː/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/oː/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/iː/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/eː/}}`{=mediawiki} are separate phonemes in most Arabic dialects).
- Polish
- Russian
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/a/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki}: Nuxálk
- Vowel/consonant allophones
- Vowels become glides in diphthongs: Manam
## Representing a phoneme with an allophone {#representing_a_phoneme_with_an_allophone}
Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple broad transcription is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, the allophony becomes significant and things then become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, that representation is chosen for the phoneme.
However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than that allows. In such cases, a common convention is to use the \"elsewhere condition\" to decide the allophone that stands for the phoneme. The \"elsewhere\" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules.
For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only before a nasal consonant in the same syllable; elsewhere, they are oral. Therefore, by the \"elsewhere\" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic, and nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes.
In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the languages of the world than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory.
An alternative, which is commonly used for archiphonemes, is to use a capital letter, such as /N/ for \[m\], \[n\], \[ŋ\].
In rare cases, a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as dingbats, to avoid privileging any particular allophone.
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Agathocles of Syracuse
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**Agathocles** (*Ἀγαθοκλῆς*, *Agathoklḗs*; 361--289 BC) was a tyrant of Syracuse from 317 BC and king of much of Sicily from 304 BC until his death. Agathocles began his career as a military officer, and raised his profile as a supporter of the democratic faction in Syracuse against the oligarchic civic government. His opponents forced him into exile and he became a mercenary leader. He eventually made his way back to Syracuse and was elected as a general. A few years later he took control through a coup d\'état. In practice he was a tyrant, although a democratic constitution theoretically remained in force.
Agathocles had led a long, costly war against the Carthaginians, who ruled the western half of Sicily, between 311 and 306 BC. In a military campaign he led the invasion of Carthage\'s North African heartland in 310 BC. After initial successes he abandoned his army in Africa and returned to Sicily in 307 BC, where he made peace with the Carthaginians and restored the *status quo ante bellum*. He then assumed the royal title and managed to bring almost the entire Greek portion of Sicily, and part of Calabria, under his control. Agathocles came close to of bringing the entirety of Magna Graecia under his control but his attempt to establish a dynasty fell apart as a result of conflict within his family.
## Biography
Agathocles was a son of Carcinus, who came from Rhegium. Carcinus was expelled from his hometown, so he migrated to Thermae Himeraeae and married a local citizen woman. Thermae, which was located on the north coast of Sicily, belonged to the western part of the island, which was under Carthaginian control. The couple had two sons, Antander and Agathocles. In 343 BC, when Agathocles was around eighteen years old, the family re-settled in Syracuse. Carcinus had answered a call from the commander Timoleon, which had overthrown the tyrannical regime of Dionysius II. Timoleon sought new citizens for the city, which had been depopulated by the civil wars. Thus, Carcinus and Agathocles acquired Syracusan citizenship. According to the sources, Carcinus was a potter and Agathocles followed him in his profession. Modern historians generally argue that he must have been a wealthy man who owned a pottery workshop. In later times, Agathocles frequently advertised his lower class origins and used them as part of his self-presentation as a ruler, since performative modesty and presenting himself as a man of the people would be important parts of his persona.
Agathocles began his military career during Timoleon\'s rule. He initially served as a soldier and then as an officer. Later, after Timoleon\'s death in 337 BC, Agathocles participated in an expedition against Acragas and began a relationship with the general, Damas, who promoted him to chiliarch. After Damas\' death, Agathocles married his widow. This made him one of the richest men in Syracuse, which gave him a good platform to begin his political ascent.
After Timoleon\'s death, Syracuse descended into the traditional conflict between democrats and oligarchs. The oligarchs had the upper hand and ruled the city as a club, called \"the Six Hundred.\" Agathocles\' elder brother, Antander, was elected to a generalship, during this period, so he must have had good relationships with members of the ruling circle. Agathocles, on the other hand, spoke in the people\'s assembly and placed himself on the side of the opposition democrats, but he was unable to overcome their power. After a successful campaign to defend Croton in southern Italy from the Bruttii, he denied an award for bravery which he felt he had earnt. After this, he openly opposed the government and openly accused the leading oligarchs, Sosistratus and Heracleides, of seeking to become tyrants. These accusations were not successful and the two oligarchs solidified their power. Agathocles\' situation in Syracuse was then untenable and he declared that he was compelled to leave the city. This does not necessarily mean that he was formally exiled.
### Double exile {#double_exile}
Agathocles went to southern Italy, where he led the life of a mercenary captain. At the same time, he built up an independent power base, as preparation for a return to Syracuse. His first military effort was a failure, however: he attempted to bring the major city of Croton in Calabria under his control by force, probably in alliance with the local democrats, but he was completely defeated and had to flee with his surviving followers to Tarentum. The Tarentines accepted him into their mercenary forces, but they distrusted him because of his ambition and plots, which led to his dismissal. After this, he gathered together democrats who had been expelled from their cities by local oligarchs. An opportunity appeared at Rhegium, the hometown of Agathocles\' father. There, the democrats were in power, but the city was attacked by forces led by the Syracusan oligarchs, who wanted to help the local oligarchs take power by force. Agathocles defeated this Syracusan expeditionary force, which destabilised Sosistratus and Heracleides\' position in Syracuse and as a result they were overthrown in a coup. The democrats returned to power and drove the leading oligarchs out of Syracuse. The exiled oligarchs allied themselves with the Carthaginians. These developments allowed Agathocles to return home around 322 BC.
Agathocles distinguished himself in the subsequent battles against the Carthaginians and oligarchs, but did not manage to acquire a leading position in the city. Instead, the Syracusans chose to request a commander from their mother city, Corinth, in accordance with a law established by Timoleon. The Corinthians sent one Acestorides, who organised an amnesty for the oligarchs, made peace with the Carthaginians, and exiled Agathocles. The radical democrats were forced out and a moderate oligarchy was established. Acestorides even attempted to have Agathocles assassinated. Agathocles established a private army, apparently funded from his own assets. He took advantage of the fact that the Syracusans were considered oppressive by other cities in Sicily and successfully presented himself as a supporter of these cities\' interests against the Syracusans. He managed to take over Leontini and even led an attack on Syracuse. The situation became so tenuous for the oligarchs in Syracuse that they reached out to the Carthaginians for help.
Agathocles outpaced the oligarchs. He negotiated with the Carthaginian commander in Sicily, Hamilcar, and convinced him to withdraw. Allegedly, they had concluded a personal agreement to support each other in establishing themselves as sole rulers of their respective cities. After the loss of Carthaginian support, Syracuse was isolated. The citizens, who did not really wish to fight for oligarchy, agreed to allow Agathocles to return home. He swore the Syracuse \"great oath\", promising that he would not establish a tyranny. After that, he was elected commander in chief of the Syracusan army in 319/318 BC.
### Seizure of power {#seizure_of_power}
The position of Agathocles within the city of Syracuse was initially that of a regular military commander, with wide but limited powers. His title was General and Guardian of the Peace (*strategos kai phylax tes eirenes*). In Syracuse, the surviving oligarchs banded together as \"The Six Hundred\" and continued to oppose him. Agathocles took advantage of the conflicts between the Syracusans and the non-Greek Sicels and between the rich and poor within Syracuse to overcome these opponents. On the pretext of taking military action against external enemies, he was able to gather a powerful force, which was loyal only to him, without raising suspicion.
In 317/6 or 316/5 BC, Agathocles used this force to launch a coup. At a meeting that the leading members of the opposition party had been invited to, he accused around forty of the oligarchs there of planning an attack on him and had them arrested and executed on the spot. His trumpeters gave the sign for battle and a general slaughter took place in the city, in which the wealthy and their supporters were the main victims. Their houses were plundered. According to Diodorus Siculus\'s account, over 4,000 people were killed, purely because they belonged to the upper class. More than 6,000 people escaped from the city, even though the gates had been locked. They mostly fled to Agrigentum.
Finally, Agathocles called an assembly of the people, in which he presented himself as a saviour of democracy in the face of the oligarchs and announced that he would retire from his position and return to private life. His followers responded by calling on him to take over the leadership of the state. He responded that he was willing to be general once more, but only if he could hold the role without any colleagues, as General with unlimited power (*strategós autokrátor*). This was the title that the earlier ruler Dionysius I had used as the legal basis for his tyranny. The people elected him to this position and also entrusted him with a general \"management of the city\" (*epiméleia tes póleos*). After this he announced a cancellation of debts and redistribution of the land, two planks of the traditional populist programme.
### Rulership
War with Carthage followed. In 311 BC Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse. In 310 BC he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack Carthage. He landed at Cape Bon in August 310 BC, and was able to defeat the Carthaginians for the first time, and establish a camp near Tunis. He then turned east and tried to take over coastal trading cities such as Neapolis and Hadrumetum, and on this occasion concluded an alliance with Ailymas, king of the Libyans according to Diodorus of Sicily, in an attempt to surround and isolate Carthage. After capturing Hadrumetum, Thapsus and other coastal towns, Agathocles turned his attention to central Tunisia. Before or during this campaign, he broke his alliance with Ailymas, whom he pursued and killed, but he kept his Numidian army, including war chariots they built.
In 309/8 BC, Agathocles began trying to sway Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica, as he was likely to prove a useful ally in Agathocles\' war against the Carthaginians. To gain his allegiance, he promised to cede to Ophellas whatever conquests their combined forces might make in Africa, reserving to himself only the possession of Sicily. Ophellas gathered a powerful army from the homeland of his wife Euthydike (a descendant of Miltiades), Athens, where many citizens felt disgruntled after having lost their voting rights. Despite the natural obstacles that presented themselves on his route, Ophellas succeeded in reaching the Carthaginian territories after a toilsome and perilous march of more than two months. He was received by Agathocles with every demonstration of friendship, and the two armies encamped near each other, but a few days later, Agathocles betrayed his new ally by attacking the camp of the Cyrenaeans and having Ophellas killed. The Cyrenean troops, left without a leader, went over to Agathocles. After several victories, he was finally completely defeated (307 BC) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace with Carthage in 306 BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304 BC, and established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the Halycus River. Even in his old age, he displayed the same restless energy and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.
His last years were plagued by ill health and the attempted usurpation of his throne by his grandson Archagathus, whom Diodorus Siculus states had him poisoned; however Justinius and the majority of modern historians assert he died a natural death (presumably from cancer of the jaw). He was a born leader of mercenaries, and he did not shrink from cruelty for the purposes to royal power. Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his deathbed and did not want his grandson to succeed him as king.
## Family
Agathocles was married three times. His first wife was the widow of his patron Damas, by whom he had two sons:
- Archagathus, who was murdered by the army in Africa in 307 BC after Agathocles abandoned it. He had one son, also called Archagathus, who was Agathocles\' main general and heir in the 290s BC, but became involved in a succession dispute with his younger uncle, also called Agathocles, and was assassinated immediately after his father\'s death in 289 BC.
- Heracleides, who was murdered with his brother in Africa in 307 BC.
Agathocles\' second wife was Alcia, with whom he had two children:
- Lanassa, second wife of King Pyrrhus of Epirus and mother of Alexander II of Epirus.
- Agathocles, who was murdered in a succession dispute shortly before his father\'s death.
Agathocles\' third wife was Theoxena, who was the second daughter of Berenice I and her first husband Philip and thus a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt. She escaped to Egypt with their two children following Agathocles\' death in 289 BC:
- Archagathus and Theoxena, who escaped to Egypt in 289 BC. Their descendants included Agathocleia and Agathocles of Egypt, who were Ptolemy IV\'s chief mistress and chief minister respectively, and dominated Egypt in the first years of Ptolemy V\'s reign.
## Legacy
Agathocles was cited as an example \"Of those who become princes through their crimes\" in chapter 8 of Niccolò Machiavelli\'s treatise on politics - *The Prince* (1513). He was described as behaving as a criminal at every stage of his career. Machiavelli claimed: `{{blockquote|Agathocles, the Sicilian, became King of Syracuse not only from a private but from a low and abject position. This man, the son of a potter, through all the changes in his fortunes, always led an infamous life. Nevertheless, he accompanied his infamies with so much ability of mind and body that, having devoted himself to the military profession, he rose through its ranks to be Praetor of Syracuse.<ref name="gutenberg">{{cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm#link2HCH0008|website=gutenberg.org|title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Prince, by Nicolo Machiavelli | Chapter VIII |access-date=15 January 2022}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Machiavelli goes on to reason that Agathocles\' success, in contrast to other criminal tyrants, was due to his ability to commit his crimes quickly and ruthlessly, and states that cruelties are best used when they `{{blockquote|are applied at one blow and are necessary to one's security, and that are not persisted in afterwards unless they can be turned to the advantage of the subjects.}}`{=mediawiki}
## Family tree of Agathocles {#family_tree_of_agathocles}
| 2025-08-01T00:00:00 |
1,841 |
Economy of Alberta
|
The **economy of Alberta** is the sum of all economic activity in Alberta, Canada\'s fourth largest province by population. Alberta\'s GDP in 2018 was CDN\$338.2 billion.
Although Alberta has a presence in many industries such as agriculture, forestry, education, tourism, finance, and manufacturing, the politics and culture of the province have been closely tied to the production of fossil energy since the 1940s. Alberta---with an estimated 1.4 billion cubic metres of unconventional oil resource in the bituminous oil sands---leads Canada as an oil producer.
In 2018, Alberta\'s energy sector contributed over \$71.5 billion to Canada\'s nominal gross domestic product. According to Statistics Canada, in May 2018, the oil and gas extraction industry reached its highest proportion of Canada\'s national GDP since 1985, exceeding 7% and \"surpass\[ing\] banking and insurance\" with extraction of non-conventional oil from the oilsands reaching an \"impressive\", all-time high in May 2018. With conventional oil extraction \"climbed up to the highs from 2007\", the demand for Canadian oil was strong in May.
From 1990 to 2003, Alberta\'s economy grew by 57% compared to 43% for all of Canada---the strongest economic growth of any region in Canada. In 2006 Alberta\'s per capita GDP was higher than all US states, and one of the highest figures in the world. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. Alberta\'s per capita GDP in 2007 was by far the highest of any province in Canada at C\$74,825 (approx. US\$75,000). Alberta\'s per capita GDP in 2007 was 61% higher than the Canadian average of C\$46,441 and more than twice that of all the Maritime provinces. From 2004 to 2014 Alberta\'s \"exports of commodities rose 91%, reaching \$121 billion in 2014\" and 500,000 new jobs were created. In 2014, Alberta\'s real GDP by expenditure grew by 4.8%, the strongest growth rate among the provinces.\" In 2017, Alberta\'s real per capita GDP---the economic output per person---was \$71,092, compared to the Canadian average of \$47,417. In 2016, Alberta\'s A grade on its income per capita was based on the fact that it was almost \"identical\" to that of the \"top peer country\"---Ireland.
The energy industry provided 7.7% of all jobs in Alberta in 2013, and 140,300 jobs representing 6.1% of total employment of 2,286,900 in Alberta in 2017. The unemployment rate in Alberta peaked in November 2016 at 9.1%. Its lowest point in a ten-year period from July 2009 to July 2019, was in September 2013 at 4.3%. The unemployment rate in the spring of 2019 in Alberta was 6.7% with 21,000 jobs added in April. By July 2019, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate had increased to 7.0%.
By August 2019, the employment number in Alberta was 2,344,000, following the loss of 14,000 full-time jobs in July, which represented the \"largest decline\" in Canada according to Statistics Canada.
Beginning in June 2014, the record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage---referred to as a global oil glut---caused crude oil prices to collapse at near ten-year low prices. By 2016 West Texas Intermediate (WTI)---the benchmark light, sweet crude oil---reached its lowest price in ten years---US\$26.55. In 2012 the price of WTI had reached US\$125 and in 2014 the price was \$100. By February 2016 the price of Western Canadian Select WCS---the Alberta benchmark heavy crude oil---was US\$14.10---the cheapest oil in the world. Alberta boom years from 2010 to 2014 ended with a \"long and deep\" recession that began in 2014, driven by low commodity pricing ended in 2017. By 2019---five years later---Alberta was still in recovery. Overall, there were approximately 35,000 jobs lost in mining, oil and gas alone. Since 2014, sectors that offered high-wage employment of \$30 and above, saw about 100,000 jobs disappear---\"construction (down more than 45,000 jobs), mining, oil and gas (down nearly 35,000), and professional services (down 18,000),\" according to the economist, Trevor Tombe. There was a decrease in wages, in the number of jobs, and in the number of hours worked. The total loss of incomes from \"workers, business, and government\" amounted to about 20 percent or about CDN\$75 billion less per year. Since 2011, prices have increased in Alberta by 18%. However, a typical worker in Alberta still earns more than a typical worker in all the other provinces and territories.
By March 2016, Alberta lost over 100,000 jobs in the oil patch. In spite of the surplus with the low price of WCS in 2015---99% of Canada\'s oil exports went to the United States and in 2015 Canada was still their largest exporter of total petroleum---3,789 thousand bpd in September---3,401 thousand bpd in October up from 3,026 thousand bpd in September 2014. By April 2019, two of the major oil companies, still had thousands of workers---Suncor had about 12,500 employees and Canadian Natural Resources had about 10,000 full-time employees.
Alberta has the \"lowest taxes overall of any province or territory\" in Canada, due in part to having high resource tax revenues. However, overall tax revenues from oil royalties and other non-renewable sources has fallen steeply along with the drop in global oil prices. For example, in 2013, oil tax revenues brought in 9.58 billion, or 21% of the total Provincial budget, whereas in 2018 it had fallen to just 5.43 billion, or 11% of the Provincial budget.
In the spring of 2020, Alberta\'s economy suffered from the economic fallout of both the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Russia--Saudi Arabia oil price war.\"
\_\_TOC\_\_
## Data
Year Nominal GDP (in bil. CA-Dollar) GDP per capita (in CA-Dollar) Unemployment (in %)
------ --------------------------------- ------------------------------- ---------------------
2019 334.5 77,239 6.8%
2018 334.3 78,311 6.9%
2017 328 77,765 8.7%
2016 314.6 75,447 8.6%
2015 326.5 79,324 4.6%
2014 338.3 83,946 4.7%
2013 319.5 81,495 4.5%
2012 302.1 78,979 5.0%
2011 290.5 77,375 5.9%
2010 272.2 73,523 6.6%
2009 258.9 71,156 4.9%
2008 273.5 77,068 3.7%
2007 270 77,748 3.6%
2006 264.8 78,533 3.8%
2005 248.6 75,867 4.5%
2004 237.7 74,064 4.9%
2003 224.7 71,218 5.4%
2002 216.8 70,114 4.9%
2001 211.6 69,882 5.2%
2000 207.8 69,860 5.0%
1999 196 66,984 5.9%
1998 193.2 67,569 5.3%
1997 184.3 65,832 6.4%
## Current overview {#current_overview}
According to ATB Financial\'s Vice President and Chief Economist---Todd Hirsch, who spoke during an April 2, 2020, webinar hosted by the Calgary Chamber of Commerce, the COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta and its \"economic fallout will permanently reshape our economy.\" Hirsch said that he expects that the resulting contraction in Alberta\'s economy will be the \"worst\...Alberta has ever seen.\"
The global price of oil decreased dramatically because of the combination of COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Russia--Saudi Arabia oil price war. In March 2020, the United States benchmark crude oil EWest Texas Intermediate (WTI)---upon which Alberta\'s benchmark crude oil Western Canadian Select (WCS) price is based---dropped to an historical below of US\$20 a barrel. The price of WCS bitumen-blend crude was US\$3.82 per barrel by the end of March. In 2018, the low price of heavy oil negatively impacted Alberta\'s economic growth.
In November 2018, the price of Western Canadian Select (WCS), the benchmark for Canadian heavy crude, hit its record low of less than US\$14 a barrel, as a \"surge of production met limited pipeline space causing bottlenecks.\" Previously, from 2008 through 2018, WCS had sold at an average discount of US\$17 against West Texas Intermediate (WTI)---the U.S. crude oil benchmark, but by the fall of 2018, the differential between WCS and WTI reached a record of over US\$50 per barrel. In response, then Premier Rachel Notley made a December 2 announcement of a mandatory cut of 8.7% in Alberta\'s oil production. By December 12, after the announcement of the government\'s \"mandated oil output curtailment\", the price of WCS rose c. 70% to c. US\$41 a barrel with the WTI differential falling from US50 to c. US\$11., according to the *Financial Post*. The WCS price rose to US\$28.60 by January 2019, as the international price of oil had begun to recover from the December \"sharp downturn\" caused by the ongoing China--U.S. trade war In March 2019, the differential of WTI over WCS decreased to \$US9.94 as the price of WTI dropped to US\$58.15 a barrel, which is 7.5% lower than it was in March 2018, while the price of WCS increased to US\$48.21 a barrel which is 35.7% higher than in March 2018. According to TD Economics\' September 2019 report, the government\'s \"mandated oil output curtailment\", has resulted in a sustained rebound in WCS prices. However, investment and spending were low in the province. The loss of 14, 000 of the full-time jobs out of 2,344,000 in Alberta in July 2019, represented the \"largest decline\" in employment in Canada for that month, according to Statistics Canada.
In 1985, Alberta\'s energy industry accounted for 36.1% of the provinces \$66.8 billion GDP. In 2006, the mining, oil and gas extraction industry accounted for 29.1% of GDP; by 2012 it was 23.3%; in 2013, it was 24.6% of Alberta\'s \$331.9 billion GDP, and in 2016, the mining, oil and gas extraction industry accounted for about 27.9% of Alberta\'s GDP.
By comparison, \"In 2017, the federal, provincial and territorial governments spent some \$724 billion on programs and more than \$58 billion on interest payments on their public debt, which, combined, amounted to about 36 percent of Canada's gross domestic product (GDP). Their combined borrowing that year was \$27 billion, and their net financial debt at year-end stood at around \$1.2 trillion, about 54 percent of GDP.\"
In his July 2019 *CBC News* article, economist Trevor Tombe said that prior to the 2014 recession, Albertans had experienced boom years from 2010 to 2014, with workers earnings reaching exceptional highs. The recession, which \"ended over two years ago\" in 2017, was \"long and deep\". By 2019---five years later---the province was still in recovery. Overall, there were approximately 35,000 jobs lost in mining, oil and gas alone. By 2019, the slow recovery and low earnings growth have resulted in workers getting \"fewer hours, fewer jobs and, in some cases, lower wages\". Tombe said that from 2014 to 2016, Alberta earned CDN\$75 billion less per year with the \"total incomes of workers, business, and government combined \[falling\] by nearly 20 per cent\". Tombes said that relative to Alberta\'s \"growth path prior to the recession\" Alberta\'s economy is \"down \$100 billion per year\", compared to what was anticipated. Tombes said that the \"boom years that ended in 2014 were the outliers\" and the lower earnings in 2019 reflect a \"natural adjustment that\'s moving Alberta to a more normal and balanced labour market.\" While earnings are lower, because of inflation, prices have increased in Alberta by 18% since 2011. \"The \$1,183 per week a typical worker earns today goes about as far as \$1,000 did nearly a decade ago.\", according to Tombe. In spite of the typical worker in Alberta earns \$1,183 per week compared to Saskatchewan, where the typical worker earns \$1,070 per week. The weekly income a typical worker in all the other Canadian provinces and territories is less than that.
Since 2014, sectors that offered high-wage employment of \$30 and above, saw about 100,000 jobs disappear---\"construction (down more than 45,000 jobs), mining, oil and gas (down nearly 35,000), and professional services (down 18,000).\"
## Alberta\'s deficit {#albertas_deficit}
Alberta\'s net debt was \$27.5 billion by March 2019, which represents the end of the 2018-19 fiscal year (FY). By November 2018, Alberta\'s government expenditures were \$55 billion while the revenue was about \$48 billion, according to a report by the University of Calgary\'s School of Public Policy (SPP) economist, Trevor Tombe. Capital investment amounted to \$4.3 billion. The provincial government employs more than \"210,000 full-time equivalent workers across hundreds of departments, boards and other entities.\" Tombe, cited a \$8.3 billion deficit in his November report, prior to the release in February 2019 of the corrected deficit figures, which was \"\$1.9 billion less in 2018-19 than originally expected\", ---\$6.9-billion deficit instead of the original \$8.8-billion\".
Alberta\'s current deficit is \"unusual for the province\", says Tombe in 2018. During the financial crisis, Alberta\'s \"net asset position equivalent to 15 per cent of GDP\"−it \"owned more financial assets than it owed in debt.\"
In 2009 Alberta had \$31.7 billion in financial assets.
BC Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba Ontario Quebec New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Newfoundland
------- --------- -------------- ---------- --------- -------- --------------- ------------- ---------------------- -------------- --
15.5% 8.7% 15.4% 34.2% 37.6% 43% 40% 34.2 33% 47.3%
: Net government debt to GDP by province March 2019
## Alberta\'s credit rating {#albertas_credit_rating}
On December 3, 2019, Moody\'s downgraded Alberta\'s credit rating from Aa2 stable from Aa1 negative and \"downgraded the long-term debt ratings of the Alberta Capital Finance Authority and the long-term issuer rating of ATB Financial to Aa2 from Aa1.\" The agency said that there is a \"structural weakness in the provincial economy that remains concentrated and dependent on non-renewable resources \... and remains pressured by a lack of sufficient pipeline capacity to transport oil efficiently with no near-term expectation of a significant rebound in oil-related investments\...Alberta\'s oil and gas sector is carbon-intensive and Alberta\'s greenhouse gas emissions are the highest among provinces. Alberta is also susceptible to natural disasters including wildfires and floods which could lead to significant mitigation costs by the province.\"
## Alberta\'s real per capita GDP {#albertas_real_per_capita_gdp}
In 2006 Alberta\'s per capita GDP was higher than all US states, and one of the highest figures in the world. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. In 2007, Alberta\'s per capita GDP in 2007 was C\$74,825 (approx. US\$75,000)---by far the highest of any Canadian province---61% higher than the Canadian average of C\$46,441 and more than twice that of all the Maritime provinces. In 2017, Alberta\'s real per capita GDP---the economic output per person---was \$71,092, compared to the Canadian average of \$47,417. Alberta\'s A grade on its income per capita was based on the fact that it was almost \"identical\" to that of the \"top peer country\" in 2016, Ireland.
In 2017, Alberta\'s real per capita GDP---the economic output per person---was \$71,092 compared to the Canadian average output per person of \$47, 417 and Prince Edward Island at \$32,123 per person. Since at least 1997, Alberta\'s per capita GDP has been higher than that of any other province. In 2014, Alberta\'s reached its highest gap ever---\$30,069---between its real capita GDP and the Canadian average.
According to the Conference Board of Canada, in 2016 Alberta earned an \"A grade with income per capita almost identical to the top peer country, Ireland.\" In 2016 income per capita in Alberta was \$59,259.
1981 1988 1991 1997 2000 2003 2005 2007 2009 2010 2014 2016
-------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
42,441 45,995 45,393 53,748 57,106 57,646 61,163 62,518 57,321 59,254 66,031 59,249
: Alberta Income per capita
## Alberta\'s GDP compared to other provinces {#albertas_gdp_compared_to_other_provinces}
A table listing annual \"[\"Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by industry, provinces and territories (x 1,000,000).\"](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610040201) from 2014 through 2018 with value chained to 2012 dollars.
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th scope="col"><p>Province<br />
or<br />
<em>Territory</em></p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2014)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2015)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2016)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2017)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2018) |-|- align=right</p></th>
<th style="text-align: left;"></th>
<th><p>219,060.9</p></th>
<th><p>224,153.4</p></th>
<th><p>231,509.9</p></th>
<th><p>240,657.9</p></th>
<th><p>246,506.3</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>338,262.6</p></td>
<td><p>326,476.7</p></td>
<td><p>313,241.5</p></td>
<td><p>327,596.2</p></td>
<td><p>335,095.6</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>80,175.7</p></td>
<td><p>79,574.2</p></td>
<td><p>79,364.4</p></td>
<td><p>81,179.0</p></td>
<td><p>82,502.7</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>58,276.3</p></td>
<td><p>59,082.5</p></td>
<td><p>60,066.2</p></td>
<td><p>61,941.2</p></td>
<td><p>62,723.1</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>659,861.2</p></td>
<td><p>677,384.0</p></td>
<td><p>693,900.4</p></td>
<td><p>712,984.3</p></td>
<td><p>728,363.7</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>338,319.0</p></td>
<td><p>341,688.0</p></td>
<td><p>346,713.7</p></td>
<td><p>356,677.9</p></td>
<td><p>365,614.4</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>29,039.6</p></td>
<td><p>29,275.7</p></td>
<td><p>29,686.3</p></td>
<td><p>30,271.8</p></td>
<td><p>30,295.3</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>5,205.6</p></td>
<td><p>5,280.7</p></td>
<td><p>5,372.2</p></td>
<td><p>5,553.3</p></td>
<td><p>5,700.0</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>34,747.2</p></td>
<td><p>35,013.4</p></td>
<td><p>35,549.3</p></td>
<td><p>36,075.4</p></td>
<td><p>36,518.2</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>31,143.3</p></td>
<td><p>30,806.0</p></td>
<td><p>31,334.5</p></td>
<td><p>31,610.6</p></td>
<td><p>30,757.9</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>2,510.9</p></td>
<td><p>2,320.2</p></td>
<td><p>2,482.5</p></td>
<td><p>2,554.5</p></td>
<td><p>2,626.1</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>4,574.6</p></td>
<td><p>4,621.3</p></td>
<td><p>4,679.8</p></td>
<td><p>4,861.3</p></td>
<td><p>4,954.7</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>2,363.6</p></td>
<td><p>2,353.0</p></td>
<td><p>2,434.3</p></td>
<td><p>2,685.3</p></td>
<td><p>2,955.0</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Source: Statistics Canada: GDP (totals),
## Economic geography {#economic_geography}
`{{see also|Geography of Alberta|List of regions of Alberta}}`{=mediawiki}
Alberta has a small internal market, and it is relatively distant from major world markets, despite good transportation links to the rest of Canada and to the United States to the south. Alberta is located in the northwestern quadrant of North America, in a region of low population density called the Interior Plains. Alberta is landlocked, and separated by a series of mountain ranges from the nearest outlets to the Pacific Ocean, and by the Canadian Shield from ports on the Lakehead or Hudson Bay. From these ports to major populations centres and markets in Europe or Asia is several thousands of kilometers. The largest population clusters of North America (the Boston -- Washington, San Francisco - San Diego, Chicago -- Pittsburgh, and Quebec City -- Windsor Corridors) are all thousands of kilometers away from Alberta. Partly for this reason, Alberta has never developed a large presence in the industries that have traditionally started industrialization in other places (notably the original Industrial Revolution in Great Britain) but which require large labour forces, and large internal markets or easy transportation to export markets, namely textiles, metallurgy, or transportation-related manufacturing (automotives, ships, or train cars).
Agriculture has been a key industry since the 1870s. The climate is dry, temperate, and continental, with extreme variations between seasons. Productive soils are found in most of the southern half of the province (excluding the mountains), and in certain parts of the north. Agriculture on a large scale is practiced further north in Alberta than anywhere else in North America, extending into the Peace River country above the 55th parallel north. Generally, however, northern Alberta (and areas along the Alberta Rockies) is forested land and logging is more important than agriculture there. Agriculture is divided into primarily field crops in the east, livestock in the west, and a mixture in between and in the parkland belt in the near north.
Conventional oil and gas fields are found throughout the province on an axis running from the northwest to the southeast. Oil sands are found in the northeast, especially around Fort McMurray (the Athabasca Oil Sands).
Because of its (relatively) economically isolated location, Alberta relies heavily on transportation links with the rest of the world. Alberta\'s historical development has been largely influenced by the development of new transportation infrastructure, (see \"trends\" below). Alberta is now served by two major transcontinental railways (CN and CP), by three major highway connections to the Pacific (the Trans-Canada via Kicking Horse Pass, the Yellowhead via Yellowhead Pass and the Crowsnest via Crowsnest Pass), and one to the United States (Interstate 15), as well as two international airports (Calgary and Edmonton). Also, Alberta is connected to the TransCanada pipeline system (natural gas) to Eastern Canada, the Northern Border Pipeline (gas), Alliance Pipeline (gas) and Enbridge Pipeline System (oil) to the Eastern United States, the Gas Transmission Northwest and Northwest Pipeline (gas) to the Western United States, and the McNeill HVDC Back-to-back station (electric power) to Saskatchewan.
### Economic regions and cities {#economic_regions_and_cities}
Since the days of early agricultural settlement, the majority of Alberta\'s population has been concentrated in the parkland belt (mixed forest-grassland), a boomerang-shaped strip of land extending along the North Saskatchewan River from Lloydminster to Edmonton and then along the Rocky Mountain foothills south to Calgary. This area is slightly more humid and treed than the drier prairie (grassland) region called Palliser\'s Triangle to its south, and large areas of the south (the \"Special Areas\") were depopulated during the droughts of the 1920s and 30s. The chernozem (black soil) of the parkland region is more agriculturally productive than the red and grey soils to the south. Urban development has also been most advanced in the parkland belt. Edmonton and Red Deer are parkland cities, while Calgary is on the parkland-prairie fringe. Lethbridge and Medicine Hat are prairie cities. Grande Prairie lies in the Peace River Country a parkland region (with isolated patches of prairie, hence the name) in the northwest isolated from the rest of the parkland by the forested Swan Hills. Fort McMurray is the only urbanized population centre in the boreal forest which covers much of the northern half of the province.
#### Calgary and Edmonton {#calgary_and_edmonton}
The Calgary and Edmonton regions, by far the province\'s two largest metropolitan regions, account for the majority of the province\'s population. They are relatively close to each other by the standards of Western Canada and distant from other metropolitan regions such as Vancouver or Winnipeg. This has produced a history of political and economic rivalry and comparison but also economic integration that has created an urbanized corridor between the two cities.
The economic profile of the two regions is slightly different. Both cities are mature service economies built on a base of resource extraction in their hinterlands. However, Calgary is predominant in hosting the regional and national headquarters of oil and gas exploration and drilling companies. Edmonton skews much more towards governments, universities and hospitals as large employers, while Edmonton\'s suburban fringes (e.g. Fort Saskatchewan, Nisku, Strathcona County (Refinery Row), Leduc, Beaumont, Acheson) are home to most of the province\'s manufacturing (much of it related to oil and gas).
##### Calgary-Edmonton Corridor {#calgary_edmonton_corridor}
The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. Measured from north to south, the region covers a distance of roughly 400 km. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta\'s population). It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor was the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian-style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The study found GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time.
##### Calgary--Edmonton rivalry {#calgaryedmonton_rivalry}
Seeing Calgary and Edmonton as part of a single economic region as the TD study did in 2003 was novel. The more traditional view had been to see the two cities as economic rivals. For example, in the 1980 both cities claimed to be the \"Oil Capital of Canada\".
## Background
`{{See also|History of Alberta|History of the petroleum industry in Canada}}`{=mediawiki}
Alberta has always been an export-oriented economy. In line with Harold Innis\' \"Staples Thesis\", the economy has changed substantially as different export commodities have risen or fallen in importance. In sequence, the most important products have been: fur, wheat and beef, and oil and gas.
The development of transportation in Alberta has been crucial to its historical economic development. The North American fur trade relied on birch-bark canoes, York boats, and Red River carts on age-old Native trails and buffalo trails to move furs out of, and European trade goods into, the region. Immigration into the province was eased tremendously by the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway\'s transcontinental line across southern Alberta in 1880s. Commercial farming became viable in the area once the grain trade had developed technologies to handle the bulk export of grain, especially hopper cars and grain elevators. Oil and gas exports have been possible because of increasing pipeline technology.
Prior to the 1950s, Alberta was a primarily agricultural economy, based on the export of wheat, beef, and a few other agricultural products. The health of economy was closely bound up with the price of wheat.
In 1947 a major oil field was discovered near Edmonton. It was not the first petroleum find in Alberta, but it was large and spawned an industry that significantly altered the economy of the province (and coincided with growing American demand for energy). Since that time, Alberta\'s economic fortunes have largely tracked the price of oil, and increasingly natural gas prices. When oil prices spiked during the 1967 Oil Embargo, 1973 oil crisis, and 1979 energy crisis, Alberta\'s economy boomed. However, during the 1980s oil glut Alberta\'s economy suffered. Alberta boomed once again during the 2003-2008 oil price spike. In July 2008 the price of oil peaked and began to decline, and Alberta\'s economy soon followed suit, with unemployment doubling within a year. By 2009 with natural gas prices at a long-term low, Alberta\'s economy was in poor health compared to before, although still relatively better than many other comparable jurisdictions. By 2012 natural gas prices were at a ten-year low and the Canadian dollar was highly valued compared to the U.S. dollar, but then oil prices recovered until June 2014.
The spin-offs from petroleum allowed Alberta to develop many other industries. Oilpatch-related manufacturing is an obvious example, but financial services and government services have also benefited from oil money.
A comparison of the development of Alberta\'s less oil and gas-endowed neighbours, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, reveals the role petroleum has played. Alberta was the least-populous of the three Prairie Provinces in the early 20th century, but by 2009, Alberta\'s population was 3,632,483, approximately three times as much as either Saskatchewan (1,023,810) or Manitoba (1,213,815).
## Employment
Alberta\'s economy is a highly developed one in which most people work in services such as healthcare, government, or retail. Primary industries are also of great importance, however.
By March 2016 the unemployment rate in Alberta rose to 7.9%--- its \"highest level since April 1995 and the first time the province's rate has surpassed the national average since December 1988.\" There were 21,200 fewer jobs than February 2015. The unemployment rate was expected to average 7.4% in 2016. The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) claimed that Alberta lost 35,000 jobs in 2015--25,000 from the oil services sector and 10,000 from exploration and production. Full-time employment increased by 10,000 in February 2016 after falling 20,000 in both December 2015 and January 2016. The natural resources industry lost 7,400 jobs in February. \"Year-over-year (y/y), the goods sector lost 56,000 jobs, while the services sector gained 34,800.\" In 2015 Alberta\'s population increased by 3,900. While Alberta had a reprieve in job loss in February 2016---up 1,400 jobs after losing jobs in October, November, December 2015 and January 2016---Ontario lost 11,200 jobs, Saskatchewan lost 7,800 jobs and New Brunswick lost 5,700 jobs.
The unemployment rate in spring 2019 in Alberta was 6.7% with 21,000 jobs added in April; in Calgary it was 7.4%, in Edmonton it was 6.9%, in Northern Alberta it was 11.2%, and in Southern Alberta it was 7.8%. By July 2019, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate had increased to 7.0%, which represented an increase of 0.3% from the previous year. The unemployment rate in Alberta peaked in November 2016 at 9.1%. Its lowest point in a ten-year period from July 2009 to July 2019 was in September 2013 at 4.3%.
By August 2019, the employment number in Alberta was 2,344,000, following the loss of 14,000 full-time jobs in July, which represented that the \"largest decline\" in Canada according to Statistics Canada.
Employment by industry, Alberta -- seasonally adjusted (000s)
Industries August 2019 July 2019 August 2018
------------------------------------------------- ------------- ----------- -------------
All industries 2,344.3 2,343.7 2,340.2
Goods-producing sector 589.6 595.6 602.1
Agriculture 49.9 50.7 48.5
Forestry, fishing, mining, oil and gas 138.3 144.3 154.4
Utilities 24.5 24.1 23.7
Construction 241.9 242.1 246.5
Manufacturing 134.9 134.5 129.0
Services-Producing Sector 1,754.8 1,748.1 1,738.1
Trade 339.3 340.0 337.1
Transportation and Warehousing 139.4 140.0 138.3
Finance, Insurance, Real Estate and Leasing 105.7 107.2 102.3
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 187.2 185.4 181.5
Business, Building and Other Support Services 83.2 84.4 88.6
Educational Services 157.2 157.7 160.7
Health Care and Social Assistance 292.4 290.6 278.8
Information, Culture and Recreation 79.0 74.3 78.7
Accommodation and Food Services 140.4 136.7 146.6
Other Services 115.1 118.2 116.7
Public Administration 116.0 113.6 108.8
### Extraction industries {#extraction_industries}
According to the Government of Alberta, the \"mining and oil and gas extraction industry accounted for 6.1% of total employment in Alberta in 2017\". By April 2019, there were about 145,100 people working directly with the oil and gas industry. In 2013, there were 171,200 people employed in the mining and oil and gas extraction industry.
In 2007 there were 146,900 people working in the mining and oil and gas extraction industry.
- Oil and Gas Extraction industry = 69,900
- Support Activities for Mining & Oil & Gas Extraction (primarily oil and gas exploration and drilling) = 71,700
- Mining other than oil and gas (mainly coal and mineral mining & quarrying) = 5,100
### Largest employers of Alberta {#largest_employers_of_alberta}
According to *Alberta Venture* magazine\'s list of the 50 largest employers in the province, the largest employers are:
Rank (2012) Rank (2010) Rank (2007) Employer Industry 2019 Employees (Total) 2012 Employees (Total) 2010 Employees (Total) 2007 Employees (Total) Head office Description Notes
------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------- ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 \* Alberta Health Services Healthcare 102,700 99,400 92,200 see note Edmonton Provincial public health authority Created in 2008 by merging nine separate provincial health authorities.
2 2 4\. Canada Safeway Limited Wholesale and Retail Trade 30,000 30,000 34,318 Calgary Food and drug retailer subsidiary of Sobeys Inc. since 2014, before that subsidiary of American chain
3 6 n/a Agrium Inc. Agri-business 15,200 (2016) 14,800 11,153 n/a Calgary Wholesale producer, distributor and retailer of agricultural products and services in North and South America n/a = not listed in 2007
4 7 8 University of Alberta Education 14,500 10,800 11,000 Edmonton Publicly funded accredited university
5 4 29 Canadian Pacific Railway Transportation 12,695 14,169 14,970 15,232 Calgary Railway and inter-modal transportation services
6 5 31 Suncor Energy Petroleum Resource Industry \~12,500 13,026 12,978 5,800 Calgary Petroleum extraction, refining, and retail Merged with Petro-Canada in 2009
7 9 35 Shaw Communications Communications 12,500 10,000 8,985 Calgary Provider of digital telecommunications services \[cable television / internet / telephony\] and community television production facilities
8 8 15 Flint Energy Services Ltd. Energy 11,211 10,280 6,169 Calgary Energy / Construction
9 11 n/a Stantec Inc. Professional Services 11,100 9,300 n/a Edmonton Architecture/Engineering/Construction n/a = not listed in 2007
10 12 9 Calgary Board of Education Public Education 14,000 9,106 9,278 10,972 Calgary Municipal K-12 Public Education School Board
## Sectors
### Oil and gas extraction industries {#oil_and_gas_extraction_industries}
`{{See also|Petroleum production in Canada|Natural gas in Canada}}`{=mediawiki}
In 2018, Alberta\'s energy sector contributed over \$71.5 billion to Canada\'s nominal gross domestic product. In 2006, it accounted for 29.1% of Alberta\'s GDP; by 2012 it was 23.3%; in 2013, it was 24.6%, and in 2016 it was 27.9%. According to Statistics Canada, in May 2018, the oil and gas extraction industry reached its highest proportion of Canada\'s national GDP since 1985, exceeding 7% and \"surpass\[ing\] banking and insurance\". with extraction of non-conventional oil from the oilsands reaching an \"impressive\", all-time high in May 2018. With conventional oil extraction \"climbed up to the highs from 2007\", the demand for Canadian oil was strong in May.
Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and gas products in the country. Alberta is the world\'s 2nd largest exporter of natural gas and the 4th largest producer. Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton\'s oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. Since the early 1940s, Alberta had supplied oil and gas to the rest of Canada and the United States. The Athabasca River region produces oil for internal and external use. The Athabasca Oil Sands contain the largest proven reserves of oil in the world outside Saudi Arabia.
The Athabasca Oil Sands (sometimes known as the Athabasca Tar sands) have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 Toilbbl. With the development of new extraction methods such as steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), which was developed in Alberta, bitumen and synthetic crude oil can be produced at costs close to those of conventional crude. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. With current technology and at current prices, about 315 Goilbbl of bitumen are recoverable. Fort McMurray, one of Canada\'s fastest growing cities, has grown enormously in recent years because of the large corporations which have taken on the task of oil production. As of late 2006 there were over \$100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta.
Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands was the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss.
Alberta\'s economy was negatively impacted by the 2015-2016 oil glut with a record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage, with global crude oil collapsing at near ten-year low prices. The United States doubled its 2008 production levels mainly due to substantial improvements in shale \"fracking\" technology, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a marked slowdown in economic growth and crude oil imports.
Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry (2017)
Alberta Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry
------------------- ----------- --------------------------------------------
Employment 2,286,900 140,300
Employment Share N/A 6.1%
Unemployment 194,700 8,800
Unemployment rate 7.8% 5.9%
- Data Source: Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey, CANSIM Table 282--0008, 2017 \"Employment share is obtained by dividing the number of employment in this industry by total employment in Alberta.\"
#### Natural gas {#natural_gas}
Natural gas has been found at several points, and in 1999, the production of natural gas liquids (ethane, propane, and butanes) totalled 172.8 Moilbbl, valued at \$2.27 billion. Alberta also provides 13% of all the natural gas used in the United States.
Notable gas reserves were discovered in the 1883 near Medicine Hat. The town of Medicine Hat began using gas for lighting the town, and supplying light and fuel for the people, and a number of industries using the gas for manufacturing.
One of North America\'s benchmarks is Alberta gas-trading price---the AECO \"C\" spot price.
In 2018, 69% of the marketable natural gas in Canada was produced in Alberta. Forty nine per cent of Alberta\'s natural gas production is consumed in Alberta. In Alberta, the average household uses 135 GJ of natural gas annually. Domestic demand for natural gas is divided across sectors, with the highest demand---83% coming from \"industrial, electrical generation, transportation and other sectors,\" and 17 percent going towards residential and commercial sectors. Of the provinces, Alberta is the largest consumer of natural gas at 3.9 billion cubic feet per day.
By August 2019, the *Financial Post* said that \"AECO daily and monthly natural gas prices\" were at the lowest they have been since 1992. Canada\'s largest natural gas producer, Canadian Natural Resources Ltd., announced in early August that it had \"shut in gas production of 27,000 million cubic feet per day because of depressed prices. Previously natural gas pipeline drilled in the southern Alberta and shipped to markets in Eastern Canada. By 2019, the entire natural gas industry had was primarily operating in northwestern Alberta and northeastern B.C., which resulted in strained infrastructure. New systems will not be complete until 2021 or 2023. In September 25, 2017 Alberta\'s benchmark AECO natural gas prices fell into \"negative territory -- \"meaning producers have had to pay customers to take their gas\". It happened again in early October with the price per gigajoule dropping to -7 cents. TransCanada (now TC Energy Corp)---which \"owns and operates Alberta\'s \"largest natural gas gathering and transmission system, interrupted its pipeline service in the fall of 2017 to complete field maintenance on the Alberta system. In July 2018, RS Energy Group\'s energy analyst Samir Kayande, said that faced with a glut of natural gas across North America, the continental market price was \$3 per gigajoule. Alberta is \"awash\" with natural gas but faces pipeline bottlenecks. CEOs of nine Alberta natural gas producers requested the Kenney government to mandate production cuts to deal with the crisis. On June 30, the AECO price of gas dropped to 11 cents per gigajoule, because of maintenance issues with the pipeline giant TC Energy Corp.
In 2003 Alberta produced 4.97 Tcuft of marketable natural gas. That year, 62% of Alberta\'s natural gas was shipped to the United States, 24% was used within Alberta, and 14% was used in the rest of Canada. In 2006, Alberta consumed 1.45 Tcuft of natural gas. The rest was exported across Canada and to the United States. Royalties to Alberta from natural gas and its byproducts are larger than royalties from crude oil and bitumen. In 2006, there were 13,473 successful natural gas wells drilled in Alberta: 12,029 conventional gas wells and 1,444 coalbed methane wells. There may be up to 500 Tcuft of coalbed methane in Alberta, although it is unknown how much of this gas might be recoverable. Alberta has one of the most extensive natural gas systems in the world as part of its energy infrastructure, with 39000 km of energy related pipelines.
### Coal
`{{See also|Coal in Alberta}}`{=mediawiki} Coal has been mined in Alberta since the late 19th century. Over 1800 mines have operated in Alberta since then.
The coal industry was vital to the early development of several communities, especially those in the foothills and along deep river valleys where coal was close to the surface.
Alberta is still a major coal producer, every two weeks Alberta produces enough coal to fill the Sky Dome in Toronto.
Much of that coal is burned in Alberta for electricity generation. By 2008, Alberta used over 25 million tonnes of coal annually to generate electricity. However, Alberta is set to retire coal power by 2023, ahead of 2030 provincial deadline.
Alberta has vast coal resources and 70 per cent of Canada\'s coal reserves are located in Alberta. This amounts to 33.6 Gigatonnes.
Vast beds of coal are found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds, and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures in England is of excellent quality. In the valley of the Bow River, alongside the Canadian Pacific Railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal are still worked. The usual coal deposits of the area of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal. These are largely worked at Lethbridge in southern Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the province. Many other parts of the province have pits for private use.
### Electricity
, Alberta\'s generating capacity was 16,261 MW, and Alberta has about 26000 km of transmission lines.
Alberta has 1491 megawatts of wind power capacity.
Production of electricity in Alberta in 2016 by source:
Generation GWh Share by Fuel
------------- -------- ---------------
Coal 42,227 50.2%
Natural Gas 33,184 39.4%
Hydro 1,773 2.1%
Wind 4,408 5.2%
Biomass 2,201 2.6%
Others 338 0.4%
Total 84,132 100%
Alberta has added 9,000 MW of new supply since 1998.
Peak for power use in one day was set on July 9, 2015 -- 10,520 MW.
### Mineral mining {#mineral_mining}
Building stones mined in Alberta include Rundle stone, and Paskapoo sandstone.
Diamonds were first found in Alberta in 1958, and many stones have been found since, although to date no large-scale mines have been developed.
### Manufacturing
The Edmonton area, and in particular Nisku is a major centre for manufacturing oil and gas related equipment. As well Edmonton\'s Refinery Row is home to a petrochemical industry.
According to a 2016 Statistics Canada report Alberta\'s manufacturing sales year-over-year sales fell 13.2 per cent, with a loss of almost four per cent from December to January. Alberta\'s economy continued to shrink because of the collapse of the oil and gas sector. The petroleum and coal product manufacturing industry is now third--- behind food and chemicals.
### Biotechnology
Several companies and services in the biotech sector are clustered around the University of Alberta, for example ColdFX.
### Food processing {#food_processing}
Owing to the strength of agriculture, food processing was once a major part of the economies of Edmonton and Calgary, but this sector has increasingly moved to smaller centres such as Brooks, the home of XL Foods, responsible for one third of Canada\'s beef processing in 2011.
### Transportation
Edmonton is a major distribution centre for northern communities, hence the nickname \"Gateway to the North\". Edmonton is one of CN Rail\'s most important hubs. Since 1996, Canadian Pacific Railway has its headquarters in downtown Calgary.
WestJet, Canada\'s second largest air carrier, is headquartered in Calgary, by Calgary International Airport, which serves as the airline\'s primary hub. Prior to its dissolution, Canadian Airlines was headquartered in Calgary by the airport. Prior to its dissolution, Air Canada subsidiary Zip was headquartered in Calgary.
### Agriculture and forestry {#agriculture_and_forestry}
#### Agriculture
`{{See also|Agriculture in Canada}}`{=mediawiki} In the past, cattle, horses, and sheep were reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. Currently Alberta produces cattle valued at over \$3.3 billion, as well as other livestock in lesser quantities. In this region irrigation is widely used. Wheat, accounting for almost half of the \$2 billion agricultural economy, is supplemented by canola, barley, rye, sugar beets, and other mixed farming. In 2011, Alberta producers seeded an estimated total of 17900000000 acres to spring wheat, durum, barley, oats, mixed grains, triticale, canola and dry peas. Of the total seeded area, 94 per cent was harvested as grains and oilseeds and six per cent as greenfeed and silage. Saudi Arabia is a major export target especially for wheat and processed potato products. SA having decided to phase out their own forage and cereal production, Alberta expects this to be an opportunity to fill livestock feed demand in the kingdom.
Agriculture has a significant position in the province\'s economy. Over three million cattle are residents of the province at one time or another, and Albertan beef has a healthy worldwide market. Although beef could also be a major export to Saudi Arabia, as with wheat and potatoes above, market access is lacking at the moment. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains buffalo (bison) for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and lamb are also raised.
Wheat and canola are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production, with other grains also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points.
Clubroot (*Plasmodiophora brassicae*) is a costly disease of *Brassicaceae* here including canola. In several experiments by Peng *et al.*, out of fungicides, biofungicides, inoculation with beneficial microbes, cultivar resistance, and crop rotation, only genetic resistance combined with more than two years rotation worked `{{endash}}`{=mediawiki} *susceptible* cultivars rotated with other crops did not produce enough improvement.
Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need.
#### Forestry
The vast northern forest reserves of softwood allow Alberta to produce large quantities of lumber, oriented strand board (OSB) and plywood, and several plants in northern Alberta supply North America and the Pacific Rim nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint.
In 1999, lumber products from Alberta were valued at \$4.1 billion of which 72% were exported around the world. Since forests cover approximately 59% of the province\'s land area, the government allows about 23.3 e6m3 to be harvested annually from the forests on public lands.
### Services
Despite the high profile of the extractive industries, Alberta has a mature economy and most people work in services. In 2014 there were 1,635.8 thousand people employed in the services-producing sector. Since then, the number has steadily increased to 1754.8 thousand jobs by August 2019, which is an increase of 16.7 thousand jobs from August 2018 This includes wholesale and retail trade; transportation and warehousing; finance, insurance, real estate, rental and leasing; professional, scientific and technical services; business, building and other support services; educational services; health care and social assistance; information, culture and recreation; accommodation and food services; other services (except public administration) and public administration.
#### Finance
The TSX Venture Exchange is headquartered in Calgary. The city has the second highest number of corporate head offices in Canada after Toronto, and the financial services industry in Calgary has developed to support them. All major banks including the Big Five maintain corporate offices in Calgary, along with smaller banks such as Equitable Group. Recently there has also been a number of fintech companies founded in Calgary such as the National Digital Asset Exchange and Neo Financial, founded by the Skip-the-Dishes team.
One of Canada\'s largest accounting firms, MNP LLP, is also headquartered in Calgary.
Edmonton hosts the headquarters of the only major Canadian banks west of Toronto: Canadian Western Bank, and ATB Financial, as well as the only province-wide credit union, Servus Credit Union.
#### Government
Despite Alberta\'s reputation as a \"small government\" province, many health care and education professionals are lured to Alberta from other provinces by the higher wages the Alberta government is able to offer because of oil revenues. In 2014 the median household income in Alberta was \$100,000 with the average weekly wage at \$1,163---23 per cent higher than the Canadian national average.
In their May 2018 report co-authored by C. D. Howe Institute\'s President and CEO, William B.P. Robson, evaluating \"the budgets, estimates and public accounts\" of 2017/18 fiscal year that were tabled by senior governments in the Canadian provinces and the federal government in terms of reporting financial information, appropriately, with transparency, and in a timely fashion, Alberta and New Brunswick ranked highest. The report also said that, prior to 2016, Alberta had scored poorly in comparison with other provinces, because of \"confusing array of \"operating,\" \"saving\" and \"capital\" accounts that were not Public Sector Accounting Standards (PSAS) consistent.\" but since 2016, Alberta has received A-plus grades. The report said that Alberta and New Brunswick in FY2017 provided \"straightforward reconciliations of results with budget intentions, their auditors record no reservations, and their budgets and public accounts are timely.\"
### Technology
Alberta has a burgeoning high tech sector, including prominent technology companies iStockPhoto, Shareworks, Benevity, and Attabotics in Calgary, and Bioware and AltaML in Edmonton. Growth in Calgary\'s technology sector, particularly at Benevity, fueled predictions of a modest economic recovery in February 2020.
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Natural history of Africa
|
The **natural history of Africa** encompasses some of the well known megafauna of that continent.
Natural history is the study and description of organisms and natural objects, especially their origins, evolution, and interrelationships.
## Flora
The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Mediterranean, there are groves of orange and olive trees, evergreen oaks, cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus and fragrant tree-heaths.
South of the Atlas Mountains, the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Characteristic of the Sahara is the date palm, which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the acacia, from which gum arabic is obtained, is abundant.
The more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper Nile; and savanna interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions, the typical tree is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp character.
The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of hardwoods, two palms, *Elaeis guineensis* (oil palm) and *Raphia vinifera* (bamboo palm), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. *Bombax* or silk cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the India rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (*Chlorophora excelsa*), ebony, mahogany (*Khaya senegalensis*), *Oldfieldia* (*Oldfieldia africana*) and camwood (*Baphia nitida*). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or \"bush\" is extremely dense. In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey-bread tree or baobab (*Adansonia digitata*), doum palm (*Hyphaene*) and euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely separated places as Liberia and southern Ethiopia. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalaya and Indo-China.
In the swamp regions of north-east Africa, papyrus and associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourished in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest, save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the yellowwood (*Podocarpus elongatus*), stinkwood (*Ocotea*), sneezewood or Cape ebony (*Pteroxylon utile*) and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa, alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range.
## Fauna
The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild donkey and four species of rhinoceros; and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyena, etc. The okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel, as a domestic animal, is especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes.
The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in South Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, Somaliland, etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900.
The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the ostrich and the secretarybird. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The secretarybird is common in the south. The weaver birds and their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the francolin and guineafowl. Many of the smaller birds, such as the sunbirds, bee-eaters, the parrots and kingfishers, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted for the brilliance of their feathers.
Of reptiles, the lizard and chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous snakes, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries.
The scorpion is abundant. Of insects, Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by means of mosquitoes is common. The tsetse fly, whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. It is found nowhere outside Africa.
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Approval voting
|
**Approval voting** is a single-winner rated voting system where voters can approve of all the candidates as they like instead of choosing one. The method is designed to eliminate vote-splitting while keeping election administration simple and easy-to-count (requiring only a single score for each candidate). Approval voting has been used in both organizational and political elections`{{Which|date=March 2025}}`{=mediawiki} to improve representativeness and voter satisfaction.
Critics of approval voting have argued the simple ballot format is a disadvantage, as it forces a binary choice for each candidate (instead of the expressive grades of other rated voting rules).
## Effect on elections {#effect_on_elections}
Research by social choice theorists Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach found that approval voting would increase voter participation, prevent minor-party candidates from being spoilers, and reduce negative campaigning. Brams\' research concluded that approval can be expected to elect majority-preferred candidates in practical election scenarios, avoiding the center squeeze common to ranked-choice voting and primary elections.
One study showed that approval would not have chosen the same two winners as plurality voting (Jacques Chirac and Jean-Marie Le Pen) in the first round of the 2002 French presidential election; it instead would have chosen Chirac and Lionel Jospin as the top two candidates to proceed to the runoff.
In the actual election, Le Pen lost by an overwhelming margin in the runoff, 82.2% to 17.8%, a sign that the true top two candidates had not been found. In the approval voting survey primary, Chirac took first place with 36.7%, compared to Jospin at 32.9%. Le Pen, in that study, received 25.1% and so would not have made the cut to the second round. In the real primary election, the top three were Chirac, 19.9%, Le Pen, 16.9%, and Jospin, 16.2%. A study of various evaluative voting methods (approval and score voting) during the 2012 French presidential election showed that \"unifying\" candidates tended to do better, and polarizing candidates did worse, as compared to under plurality voting.
### Operational impacts {#operational_impacts}
- **Simple to tally---**Approval ballots can be counted by some existing machines designed for plurality elections, as ballots are cast, so that final tallies are immediately available after the election, with relatively few if any upgrades to equipment.
- **Just one round---**Approval can remove the need for multiple rounds of voting, such as a primary or a run-off, simplifying the election process.
- **Avoids overvotes---**Approval voting does not have the notion of overvotes, where voting for one more than allowed will cancel the entire opportunity to vote. In plurality elections, overvotes have to be reviewed and resolved if possible while in approval voting, no time is wasted on this activity.
## Use
### Current electoral use {#current_electoral_use}
#### Latvia
The Latvian parliament uses a modified version of approval voting within open list proportional representation, in which voters can cast either positive (approval) votes, negative votes or neither for any number of candidates.
#### United States {#united_states}
Missouri
In November 2020, St. Louis, Missouri, passed Proposition D with 70% voting to authorize a variant of approval (unified primary) for municipal offices. In 2021, the first mayoral election with approval voting saw Tishaura Jones and Cara Spencer move on to the general with 57% and 46% support. Lewis Reed and Andrew Jones were eliminated with 39% and 14% support, resulting in an average of 1.6 candidates supported by each voter in the 4 person race.
North Dakota
In 2018, Fargo, North Dakota, passed a local ballot initiative adopting approval for the city\'s local elections, becoming the first United States city and jurisdiction to adopt approval. Previously in 2015, a Fargo city commissioner election had suffered from six-way vote-splitting, resulting in a candidate winning with an unconvincing 22% plurality of the vote.
The first election was held June 9, 2020, selecting two city commissioners, from seven candidates on the ballot. Both winners received over 50% approval, with an average 2.3 approvals per ballot, and 62% of voters supported the change to approval in a poll. A poll by opponents of approval was conducted to test whether voters had in fact voted strategically according to the Burr dilemma. They found that 30% of voters who bullet voted did so for strategic reasons, while 57% did so because it was their sincere opinion. Fargo\'s second approval election took place in June 2022, for mayor and city commission. The incumbent mayor was re-elected from a field of 7 candidates, with an estimated 65% approval, with voters expressing 1.6 approvals per ballot, and the two commissioners were elected from a field of 15 candidates, with 3.1 approvals per ballot.
In 2023, the North Dakota legislature passed a bill which intended to ban approval voting. The bill was vetoed by governor Doug Burgum, citing the importance of \"home rule\" and allowing citizens control over their local government. The legislature attempted to overrule the veto but failed. In April 2025, Governor Kelly Armstrong signed a bill banning ranked-choice voting and approval voting in the state, ending the practice in Fargo.
### Use by organizations {#use_by_organizations}
Approval has been used in privately administered nomination contests by the Independent Party of Oregon in 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2016. Oregon is a fusion voting state, and the party has cross-nominated legislators and statewide officeholders using this method; its 2016 presidential preference primary did not identify a potential nominee due to no candidate earning more than 32% support. The party switched to using STAR voting in 2020.
It is also used in internal elections by the American Solidarity Party; the Green Parties of Texas and Ohio; the Libertarian National Committee; the Libertarian parties of Texas, Colorado, Arizona, and New York; Alliance 90/The Greens in Germany; and the Czech and German Pirate Party .
Approval has been adopted by several societies: the Society for Social Choice and Welfare (1992), Mathematical Association of America (1986), the American Mathematical Society, the Institute of Management Sciences (1987) (now the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences), the American Statistical Association (1987), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1987).
Steven Brams\' analysis of the 5-candidate 1987 Mathematical Association of America presidential election shows that 79% of voters cast a ballot for one candidate, 16% for 2 candidates, 5% for 3, and 1% for 4, with the winner earning the approval of 1,267 (32%) of 3,924 voters. The IEEE board in 2002 rescinded its decision to use approval. IEEE Executive Director Daniel J. Senese stated that approval was abandoned because \"few of our members were using it and it was felt that it was no longer needed.\"
Approval voting was used for Dartmouth Alumni Association elections for seats on the College Board of Trustees, but after some controversy it was replaced with traditional runoff elections by an alumni vote of 82% to 18% in 2009. Dartmouth students started to use approval voting to elect their student body president in 2011. In the first election, the winner secured the support of 41% of voters against several write-in candidates. In 2012, Suril Kantaria won with the support of 32% of the voters. In 2013, 2014 and 2016, the winners also earned the support of under 40% of the voters. Results reported in *The Dartmouth* show that in the 2014 and 2016 elections, more than 80 percent of voters approved of only one candidate. Students replaced approval voting with plurality voting before the 2017 elections.
### Historical
300px\|thumb\|Rows of secret approval vote boxes from early 1900s Greece, where the voter drops a marble to the right or left of the box, through a tube, one for each candidate standing Robert J. Weber coined the term \"Approval Voting\" in 1971. It was more fully published in 1978 by political scientist Steven Brams and mathematician Peter Fishburn.
Historically, several voting methods that incorporate aspects of approval have been used:
- Approval was used for papal conclaves between 1294 and 1621, with an average of about forty cardinals engaging in repeated rounds of voting until one candidate was listed on at least two-thirds of ballots.
- In the 13th through 18th centuries, the Republic of Venice elected the Doge of Venice using a multi-stage process that featured random selection and voting that allowed approval of multiple candidates.
- According to Steven J. Brams, approval was used for unspecified elections in 19th century England.
- The Secretary-General of the United Nations is elected in a multi-round straw poll process where, in each round, members of the Security Council may approve or disapprove of candidates, or decide to express no opinion. Disapproval by permanent members of the Security Council is similar to a veto. A candidate with no vetoes, at least nine votes, and more votes than any other candidate is considered to be likely to be supported by the Security Council in its formal recommendation vote.
- Approval was used in Greek legislative elections from 1864 to 1923, after which it was replaced with party-list proportional representation.
- Sequential proportional approval voting was used in Swedish elections in the early 20th century, prior to being replaced by party-list proportional representation.
The idea of approval was adopted by X. Hu and Lloyd Shapley in 2003 in studying authority distribution in organizations.
## Strategic voting {#strategic_voting}
### Overview
Approval voting allows voters to select all the candidates whom they consider to be reasonable choices.
*Strategic approval* differs from ranked voting (aka preferential voting) methods where voters are generally forced to *reverse* the preference order of two options, which if done on a larger scale can cause an unpopular candidate to win. Strategic approval, with more than two options, involves the voter changing their approval threshold. The voter decides which options to give the *same* rating, even if they were to have a preference order between them. This leaves a tactical concern any voter has for approving their second-favorite candidate, in the case that there are three or more candidates. Approving their second-favorite means the voter harms their favorite candidate\'s chance to win. Not approving their second-favorite means the voter helps the candidate they least desire to beat their second-favorite and perhaps win.
Approval technically allows for but is strategically immune to push-over and burying.
Bullet voting occurs when a voter approves *only* candidate \"a\" instead of *both* \"a\" and \"b\" for the reason that voting for \"b\" can cause \"a\" to lose. The voter would be satisfied with either \"a\" or \"b\" but has a moderate preference for \"a\". Were \"b\" to win, this hypothetical voter would still be satisfied. If supporters of both \"a\" and \"b\" do this, it could cause candidate \"c\" to win. This creates the \"chicken dilemma\", as supporters of \"a\" and \"b\" are playing chicken as to which will stop strategic voting first, before both of these candidates lose.
Compromising occurs when a voter approves an *additional* candidate who is otherwise considered unacceptable to the voter to prevent an even worse alternative from winning.
### Sincere voting {#sincere_voting}
Approval experts describe sincere votes as those \"\... that directly reflect the true preferences of a voter, i.e., that do not report preferences \'falsely.{{\'\"}} They also give a specific definition of a sincere approval vote in terms of the voter\'s ordinal preferences as being any vote that, if it votes for one candidate, it also votes for any more preferred candidate. This definition allows a sincere vote to treat strictly preferred candidates the same, ensuring that every voter has at least one sincere vote. The definition also allows a sincere vote to treat equally preferred candidates differently. When there are two or more candidates, every voter has at least three sincere approval votes to choose from. Two of those sincere approval votes do not distinguish between any of the candidates: vote for none of the candidates and vote for all of the candidates. When there are three or more candidates, every voter has more than one sincere approval vote that distinguishes between the candidates.
#### Examples
Based on the definition above, if there are four candidates, A, B, C, and D, and a voter has a strict preference order, preferring A to B to C to D, then the following are the voter\'s possible sincere approval votes:
- vote for A, B, C, and D
- vote for A, B, and C
- vote for A and B
- vote for A
- vote for no candidates
If the voter instead equally prefers B and C, while A is still the most preferred candidate and D is the least preferred candidate, then all of the above votes are sincere and the following combination is also a sincere vote:
- vote for A and C
The decision between the above ballots is equivalent to deciding an arbitrary \"approval cutoff.\" All candidates preferred to the cutoff are approved, all candidates less preferred are not approved, and any candidates equal to the cutoff may be approved or not arbitrarily.
### Sincere strategy with ordinal preferences {#sincere_strategy_with_ordinal_preferences}
A sincere voter with multiple options for voting sincerely still has to choose which sincere vote to use. Voting strategy is a way to make that choice, in which case strategic approval includes sincere voting, rather than being an alternative to it. This differs from other voting systems that typically have a unique sincere vote for a voter.
When there are three or more candidates, the winner of an approval election can change, depending on which sincere votes are used. In some cases, approval can sincerely elect any one of the candidates, including a Condorcet winner and a Condorcet loser, without the voter preferences changing. To the extent that electing a Condorcet winner and not electing a Condorcet loser is considered desirable outcomes for a voting system, approval can be considered vulnerable to sincere, strategic voting. In one sense, conditions where this can happen are robust and are not isolated cases. On the other hand, the variety of possible outcomes has also been portrayed as a virtue of approval, representing the flexibility and responsiveness of approval, not just to voter ordinal preferences, but cardinal utilities as well.
#### Dichotomous preferences {#dichotomous_preferences}
Approval avoids the issue of multiple sincere votes in special cases when voters have dichotomous preferences. For a voter with dichotomous preferences, approval is strategyproof. When all voters have dichotomous preferences and vote the sincere, strategy-proof vote, approval is guaranteed to elect a Condorcet winner. However, having dichotomous preferences when there are three or more candidates is not typical. It is an unlikely situation for all voters to have dichotomous preferences when there are more than a few voters.
Having dichotomous preferences means that a voter has bi-level preferences for the candidates. All of the candidates are divided into two groups such that the voter is indifferent between any two candidates in the same group and any candidate in the top-level group is preferred to any candidate in the bottom-level group. A voter that has strict preferences between three candidates---prefers A to B and B to C---does not have dichotomous preferences.
Being strategy-proof for a voter means that there is a unique way for the voter to vote that is a strategically best way to vote, regardless of how others vote. In approval, the strategy-proof vote, if it exists, is a sincere vote.
#### Approval threshold {#approval_threshold}
Another way to deal with multiple sincere votes is to augment the ordinal preference model with an approval or acceptance threshold. An approval threshold divides all of the candidates into two sets, those the voter approves of and those the voter does not approve of. A voter can approve of more than one candidate and still prefer one approved candidate to another approved candidate. Acceptance thresholds are similar. With such a threshold, a voter simply votes for every candidate that meets or exceeds the threshold.
With threshold voting, it is still possible to not elect the Condorcet winner and instead elect the Condorcet loser when they both exist. However, according to Steven Brams, this represents a strength rather than a weakness of approval. Without providing specifics, he argues that the pragmatic judgments of voters about which candidates are acceptable should take precedence over the Condorcet criterion and other social choice criteria.
### Strategy with cardinal utilities {#strategy_with_cardinal_utilities}
Voting strategy under approval is guided by two competing features of approval. On the one hand, approval fails the later-no-harm criterion, so voting for a candidate can cause that candidate to win instead of a candidate more preferred by that voter. On the other hand, approval satisfies the monotonicity criterion, so not voting for a candidate can never help that candidate win, but can cause that candidate to lose to a less preferred candidate. Either way, the voter can risk getting a less preferred election winner. A voter can balance the risk-benefit trade-offs by considering the voter\'s cardinal utilities, particularly via the von Neumann--Morgenstern utility theorem, and the probabilities of how others vote.
A rational voter model described by Myerson and Weber specifies an approval strategy that votes for those candidates that have a positive prospective rating. This strategy is optimal in the sense that it maximizes the voter\'s expected utility, subject to the constraints of the model and provided the number of other voters is sufficiently large.
An optimal approval vote always votes for the most preferred candidate and not for the least preferred candidate, which is a dominant strategy. An optimal vote can require supporting one candidate and not voting for a more preferred candidate if there 4 candidates or more, e.g. the third and fourth choices are correlated to gain or lose decisive votes together; however, such situations are inherently unstable, suggesting such strategy should be rare.
Other strategies are also available and coincide with the optimal strategy in special situations. For example:
- Vote for the candidates that have above average utility. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if the voter thinks that all pairwise ties are equally likely.
- Vote for any candidate that is more preferred than the expected winner and also vote for the expected winner if the expected winner is more preferred than the expected runner-up. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if there are three or fewer candidates or if the pivot probability for a tie between the expected winner and expected runner-up is sufficiently large compared to the other pivot probabilities. This strategy, if used by all voters, implies at equilibrium the election of the Condorcet winner whenever it exists.
- Vote for the most preferred candidate only. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy when the best candidate is either much better than all others (i.e. is the only one with a positive expected value).
- If all voters are rational and cast a strategically optimal vote based on a common knowledge of how all other voters vote except for small-probability, statistically independent errors, then the winner will be the Condorcet winner, if one exists.
### Strategy examples {#strategy_examples}
In the example election described here, assume that the voters in each faction share the following von Neumann--Morgenstern utilities, fitted to the interval between 0 and 100. The utilities are consistent with the rankings given earlier and reflect a strong preference each faction has for choosing its city, compared to weaker preferences for other factors such as the distance to the other cities.
Fraction of voters (living close to) Candidates
-------------------------------------- ------------ -------------
Memphis Nashville Chattanooga
Memphis (42%) 100 15
Nashville (26%) 0 100
Chattanooga (15%) 0 15
Knoxville (17%) 0 15
: Voter utilities for each candidate city
Using these utilities, voters choose their optimal strategic votes based on what they think the various pivot probabilities are for pairwise ties. In each of the scenarios summarized below, all voters share a common set of pivot probabilities.
Strategy scenario Winner Runner-up Candidate vote totals
------------------------------- --------------- ------------- -----------------------
Memphis Nashville Chattanooga Knoxville
Zero-info Memphis Chattanooga 42
Memphis leading Chattanooga Three-way tie 42
Chattanooga leading Knoxville Chattanooga Nashville 42
Chattanooga leading Nashville Nashville Memphis 42
Nashville leading Memphis Nashville Memphis 42
: Approval Voting results for scenarios using optimal strategic voting
In the first scenario, voters all choose their votes based on the assumption that all pairwise ties are equally likely. As a result, they vote for any candidate with an above-average utility. Most voters vote for only their first choice. Only the Knoxville faction also votes for its second choice, Chattanooga. As a result, the winner is Memphis, the Condorcet loser, with Chattanooga coming in second place. In this scenario, the winner has minority approval (more voters disapproved than approved) and all the others had even less support, reflecting the position that no choice gave an above-average utility to a majority of voters.
In the second scenario, all of the voters expect that Memphis is the likely winner, that Chattanooga is the likely runner-up, and that the pivot probability for a Memphis-Chattanooga tie is much larger than the pivot probabilities of any other pair-wise ties. As a result, each voter votes for any candidate they prefer more than the leading candidate, and also vote for the leading candidate if they prefer that candidate more than the expected runner-up. Each remaining scenario follows a similar pattern of expectations and voting strategies.
In the second scenario, there is a three-way tie for first place. This happens because the expected winner, Memphis, was the Condorcet loser and was also ranked last by any voter that did not rank it first.
Only in the last scenario does the actual winner and runner-up match the expected winner and runner-up. As a result, this can be considered a stable strategic voting scenario. In the language of game theory, this is an \"equilibrium.\" In this scenario, the winner is also the Condorcet winner.
### Dichotomous cutoff {#dichotomous_cutoff}
Modeling voters with a \'dichotomous cutoff\' assumes a voter has an immovable approval cutoff, while having meaningful cardinal preferences. This means that rather than voting for their top 3 candidates, or all candidates above the average approval, they instead vote for all candidates above a certain approval \'cutoff\' that they have decided. This cutoff does not change, regardless of which and how many candidates are running, so when all available alternatives are either above or below the cutoff, the voter votes for all or none of the candidates, despite preferring some over others. This could be imagined to reflect a case where many voters become disenfranchised and apathetic if they see no candidates they approve of. In a case such as this, many voters may have an internal cutoff, and would not simply vote for their top 3, or the above average candidates.
For example, in this scenario, voters are voting for candidates with approval above 50% (bold signifies that the voters voted for the candidate):
Proportion of electorate Approval of Candidate A Approval of Candidate B Approval of Candidate C Approval of Candidate D Average approval
-------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------
25% **90%** **60%** 40% 10% *50%*
35% 10% **90%** **60%** 40% *50%*
30% 40% 10% **90%** **60%** *50%*
10% **60%** 40% 10% **90%** *50%*
C wins with 65% of the voters\' approval, beating B with 60%, D with 40% and A with 35%
If voters\' threshold for receiving a vote is that the candidate has an above average approval, or they vote for their two most approved of candidates, this is not a dichotomous cutoff, as this can change if candidates drop out. On the other hand, if voters\' threshold for receiving a vote is fixed (say 50%), this is a dichotomous cutoff, and satisfies IIA as shown below:
Proportion of electorate Approval of Candidate A Approval of Candidate B Approval of Candidate C Approval of Candidate D Average approval
-------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------
25% -- **60%** **40%** 10% *37%*
35% -- **90%** 60% 40% *63%*
30% -- 10% **90%** **60%** *53%*
10% -- 40% 10% **90%** *47%*
: A drops out, candidates voting for above average approval
B now wins with 60%, beating C with 55% and D with 40%
Proportion of electorate Approval of Candidate A Approval of Candidate B Approval of Candidate C Approval of Candidate D Average approval
-------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------
25% -- **60%** 40% 10% *37%*
35% -- **90%** **60%** 40% *63%*
30% -- 10% **90%** **60%** *53%*
10% -- 40% 10% **90%** *47%*
: A drops out, candidates voting for approval \> 50%
With dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.
Proportion of electorate Approval of Candidate A Approval of Candidate B Approval of Candidate C Approval of Candidate D Average approval
-------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------
25% **90%** **60%** 40% -- *63%*
35% 10% **90%** **60%** -- *53%*
30% **40%** 10% **90%** -- *47%*
10% **60%** **40%** 10% -- *37%*
: D drops out, candidates voting for top 2 candidates
B now wins with 70%, beating C and A with 65%
Proportion of electorate Approval of Candidate A Approval of Candidate B Approval of Candidate C Approval of Candidate D Average approval
-------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------------- ------------------
25% **90%** **60%** 40% -- *63%*
35% 10% **90%** **60%** -- *53%*
30% 40% 10% **90%** -- *47%*
10% **60%** 40% 10% -- *37%*
: D drops out, candidates voting for approval \> 50%
With dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.
## Compliance with voting system criteria {#compliance_with_voting_system_criteria}
Most of the mathematical criteria by which voting systems are compared were formulated for voters with ordinal preferences. In this case, approval voting requires voters to make an additional decision of where to put their approval cutoff (see examples above). Depending on how this decision is made, approval satisfies different sets of criteria.
There is no ultimate authority on which criteria should be considered, but the following are criteria that many voting theorists accept and consider desirable:
**Voting model:** Majority Monotone and Participation Condorcet and Smith IIA Clone independence Reversal symmetry Sincere favorite Strategyproof
---------------------------------------------------- ---------- ---------------------------- --------------------- ----- -------------------- ------------------- ------------------ ---------------
Zero information
Leader rule`{{Explain|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} \|
Trembling ballots \|
Binary preferences
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Alarums and Excursions
|
***Alarums and Excursions**\'\' (***A&E**\'\') was an amateur press association (APA) started in June 1975 by Lee Gold; the final issue, #593, was published in April 2025. It was one of the first publications to focus solely on role-playing games.
## History
In 1964, Bruce Pelz of the Los Angeles Science Fiction Society (LASFS) began a weekly amateur press association named *APA-L*. In 1974, with the publication of *Dungeons & Dragons* by TSR, Inc., articles and comments about the new roleplaying game began to fill the pages of *APA-L*, a development to which Pelz objected. Lee Gold took note of this and started a new APA, *Alarums and Excursions* (the title taken from an Elizabethan drama stage direction that moved soldiers across a stage), to focus entirely on roleplaying games, attracting such material away from *APA-L*. The first issue appeared in June 1975.
In addition to removing roleplaying games discussion out of *APA-L*, the initial aim of the publication was to prevent roleplaying games from becoming so divergent that people from different cities could not participate in games together.
The June 2017 issue of *Alarums and Excursions* was number 500, with a color cover drawn by Lee Moyer and printed by Rob Heinsoo.
## Contents
Each issue is a collection of contributions from different authors, often featuring game design discussions, rules variants, write-ups of game sessions, reviews, and comments on others contributions.
Although game reports and social reactions are common parts of many *A&E* contributions, it has also, over the years, become a testing ground for new ideas on the development of the RPG as a genre and an art form. The idea that role-playing games *are* an art form took strong root in this zine, and left a lasting impression on many of the RPG professionals who contributed. The 1992 role-playing game *Over the Edge* was inspired by discussions in *A&E*.
Among the contributors over the years were: `{{div col|colwidth=12em}}`{=mediawiki}
- Terry K. Amthor
- Wilf K. Backhaus
- Scott Bennie
- Greg Costikyan
- Doc Cross
- John M. Ford
- E. Gary Gygax
- Andrew Gelman
- David A. Hargrave
- Rob Heinsoo
- John Eric Holmes
- Wes Ives
- Robin Laws
- Nicole Lindroos
- Samuel Edward Konkin III
- Stephen R. Marsh
- Phil McGregor
- Dave Nalle
- Mark Rein·Hagen
- Ken Rolston
- John T. Sapienza Jr.
- Lawrence M. Schoen
- Edward E. Simbalist
- Jonathan Tweet
- Erick Wujcik
- John Nephew
- Spike Y Jones
## Reception
In the February 1976 issue of *Strategic Review* (Issue 6), Gary Gygax complimented the new APA, calling it \"an excellent source of ideas, inspirations and fun.\" Although Gygax felt some of the contributors were \"woefully lacking in background\", and the quality of printing varied dramatically from issue to issue, he concluded, \"For all of its faults, it is far and away the best *D&D* \'zine, and well worth reading. See for yourself why it rates a Major Triumph.\"
In the June 1981 edition of *Dragon* (Issue #50), Dave Nalle reviewed *Alarums and Excursions* after its 63rd issue (November 1980), and although he found the writing style \"a bit stuffy\", with a \"tendency for the writers to pat each other on the back\", he still called it \"the top APA publication\... This is a very well run APA and features many of the leading thinkers in fantasy gaming.\"
## Awards
To date, *Alarums and Excursions* has been a winner of the Charles Roberts/Origins Award four times:
- \"Best Amateur Adventure Gaming Magazine\" in 1985
- \"Best Amateur Game Magazine\" in 1999
- \"Best Amateur Game Periodical\" in 2000 and 2001
- \"Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design Hall of Fame\" in 2022
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1,870 |
Amalric
|
**Amalric** or **Amalaric** (also Americ, Almerich, Emeric, Emerick and other variations) is a personal name derived from the tribal name *Amal* (referring to the Gothic Amali) and *ric* (Gothic *reiks*) meaning \"ruler, prince\".
Equivalents in different languages include:
- French: Amaury (surname/given name), Amalric (surname), Amaurich (surname), Maury (surname)
- German: Amalrich, Emmerich
- Italian: Amerigo, Arrigo
- Hungarian: Imre
- Latin: Amalricus, Americus, Almericus, Emericus
- Greek: Έμέρικοσ (Emérikos)
- Polish: Amalaryk, Amalryk, Emeryk
- Dutch: Emmerik, Amerik, Hamelink, Hamelryck
- Portuguese: Amáuri, Américo
- Spanish: Amauri, Américo
- Serbo-Croatian: Emerik/Емерик
- Arabic: عَمُورِي (ʻAmūrī)
## Given name {#given_name}
- Amalaric (502--531), King of the Visigoths from 526 to 531
- Malaric (fl. 585), King of the Suevi
- Amaury, Count of Valenciennes (fl.953-973)
- Amalric of Nesle (fl. 1151--1180), Patriarch of Jerusalem from 1158 to 1180
- Amalric I of Jerusalem (1136--1174), King of Jerusalem from 1162 to 1174
- Amalric II of Jerusalem (fl. 1155--1205), King of Jerusalem from 1197 to 1205
- Amalric of Bena (f. 1200--1204), French theologian
- Arnaud Amalric (fl. 1196--1225), seventeenth abbot of Citeaux
- Amaury de Montfort (disambiguation), several individuals including:
- Amaury de Montfort (died 1241) (1195--1241), crusader
- Amalric, Lord of Tyre (c. 1272 -- 1310), Governor of Cyprus from 1306 to 1310
- Amerigo Vespucci (1451--1512), Italian merchant, explorer, and navigator from the Republic of Florence, from whose name the term \"America\" is derived.
## Surname
- Arnaud Amalric (died 1225), Cistercian abbot
- Catherine Amalric (born 1964), French politician
- Mathieu Amalric (born 1965), French actor and director
- Leonid Amalrik (1905--1997), Soviet animator
- Andrei Amalrik (1938--1980), Soviet dissident
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1,872 |
Aimery of Cyprus
|
**Aimery of Lusignan** (*Aimericus*, *Αμωρί*, *Amorí*; before 1155`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}1 April 1205), erroneously referred to as **Amalric** (*Amaury*) in earlier scholarship, reigned as the first king of Cyprus from 1196 to his death in 1205. He also reigned as the king of Jerusalem as the husband and co-ruler of Queen Isabella I from 1197 to his death. He was a younger son of Hugh VIII of Lusignan, a nobleman in Poitou. After participating in a rebellion against Henry II of England in 1168, he went to the Holy Land and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Aimery\'s marriage to Eschiva of Ibelin (whose father was an influential nobleman) strengthened his position in the kingdom. His younger brother, Guy, married Sibylla, the sister and heir presumptive of Baldwin IV of Jerusalem. Baldwin made Aimery the constable of Jerusalem around 1180. He was one of the commanders of the Christian army in the Battle of Hattin, which ended with a decisive defeat at the hands of the army of Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria, on 4 July 1187.
Aimery supported Guy even after he lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem according to most barons of the realm, because of the death of Sibylla and their two daughters. The new king of Jerusalem, Henry II of Champagne, arrested Aimery for a short period. After his release, he retired to Jaffa which was the fief of his elder brother, Geoffrey of Lusignan, who had left the Holy Land.
After Guy died in May 1194, his vassals in Cyprus elected Aimery as their lord. He accepted the suzerainty of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. With the emperor\'s authorization, Aimery was crowned king of Cyprus in September 1197. The widowed Aimery soon married Henry of Champagne\'s widow, Isabella I of Jerusalem. Aimery and Isabella were crowned king and queen of Jerusalem in January 1198. He signed a truce with Al-Adil I, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, which secured the Christian possession of the coastline from Acre to Antioch. His rule was a period of peace and stability in both of his realms.
## Early life {#early_life}
Aimery was born before 1155. He was the fifth son of Hugh VIII of Lusignan and his wife, Burgundia of Rancon. His family had been noted for generations of crusaders in their native Poitou. His great-grandfather, Hugh VI of Lusignan, died in the Battle of Ramla in 1102; Aimery\'s grandfather, Hugh VII of Lusignan, took part in the Second Crusade. Aimery\'s father also came to the Holy Land and died in a Muslim prison in the 1160s. Earlier scholarship erroneously referred to him as Amalric (or Amaury, its French form), but evidence from documentaries shows he was actually called *Aimericus*, which is a distinct name (although it was sometimes confused with *Amalricus* already in the Middle Ages). Runciman and other modern historians erroneously refer to him as Amalric II of Jerusalem, because they confused his name with that of Amalric \"I\" of Jerusalem.
Aimery joined a rebellion against Henry II of England (who also ruled Poitou) in 1168, according to Robert of Torigni\'s chronicle, but Henry crushed the rebellion. Aimery left for the Holy Land and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He was captured in a battle and held in captivity in Damascus. A popular tradition (which was first recorded by the 13th-century Philip of Novara and John of Ibelin) held, the King of Jerusalem, Amalric, ransomed him personally.
Ernoul (whose reliability is questioned) claimed Aimery was a lover of Amalric of Jerusalem\'s former wife, Agnes of Courtenay. Aimery married Eschiva of Ibelin, a daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin, who was one of the most powerful noblemen in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Amalric of Jerusalem, who died on 11 July 1174, was succeeded by his thirteen-year-old son by Agnes of Courtenay, Baldwin IV who suffered from leprosy. Aimery became a member of the royal court with his father-in-law\'s support.
Aimery\'s youngest brother, Guy, married Baldwin IV\'s widowed sister, Sibylla, in April 1180. Ernoul wrote, it was Aimery who had spoken of his brother to her and her mother, Agnes of Courtenay, describing him as a handsome and charming young man. Aimery, continued Ernoul, hurried back to Poitou and persuaded Guy to come to the kingdom, although Sibylla had promised herself to Aimery\'s father-in-law. Another source, William of Tyre, did not mention that Aimery had played any role in the marriage of his brother and the King\'s sister. Consequently, many elements of Ernoul\'s report (especially Aimery\'s alleged journey to Poitou) were most probably invented.
## Constable of Jerusalem {#constable_of_jerusalem}
Aimery was first mentioned as Constable of Jerusalem on 24 February 1182. According to Steven Runciman and Malcolm Barber, he had already been granted the office shortly after his predecessor, Humphrey II of Toron, died in April 1179. Historian Bernard Hamilton writes that Aimery\'s appointment was the consequence of the growing influence of his brother and he was appointed only around 1181.
Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria, launched a campaign against the Kingdom of Jerusalem on 29 September 1183. Aimery defeated the sultan\'s troops in a minor skirmish with the support of his father-in-law and his brother, Balian of Ibelin. After the victory, the crusaders\' main army could advance as far as a spring near Saladin\'s camp, forcing him to retreat nine days later. During the campaign, it turned out that most barons of the realm were unwilling to cooperate with Aimery\'s brother, Guy, who was the designated heir to Baldwin IV. The ailing king dismissed Guy and made his five-year-old nephew (Guy\'s stepson), Baldwin V, his co-ruler on 20 November 1183.
In early 1185, Baldwin IV decreed that the Pope, the Holy Roman Emperor and the Kings of France and England were to be approached to choose between his sister, Sybilla, and their half-sister, Isabella, if Baldwin V died before reaching the age of majority. The leper king died in April or May 1185, his nephew in late summer of 1186. Ignoring Baldwin IV\'s decree, Sybilla was proclaimed queen by her supporters and she crowned her husband, Guy, king. Aimery was not listed among those who were present at the ceremony, but he obviously supported his brother and sister-in-law, according to Hamilton.
As Constable, Aimery organised the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem into units before the Battle of Hattin, which ended with the decisive victory of Saladin on 4 July 1187. Along with most commanders of the Christian army, Aimery was captured in the battlefield. During the siege of Ascalon, Saladin promised the defenders that he would set free ten persons whom they named if they surrendered. Aimery and Guy were among those whom the defenders named before surrendering on 4 September, but Saladin postponed their release until the spring of 1188.
Most barons of the realm thought that Guy lost his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem when Sybilla and their two daughters died in late 1190, but Aimery remained loyal to his brother. Guy\'s opponents supported Conrad of Montferrat who married Sybilla\'s half-sister Isabella in late November. An assembly of the noblemen of the realm unanimously declared Conrad the lawful king on 16 April 1192. Although Conrad was murdered twelve days later, his widow soon married Henry II of Champagne, who was elected King of Jerusalem. To compensate Guy for the loss of Jerusalem, Richard I of England authorized him to purchase the island of Cyprus (that Richard had conquered in May 1191) from the Knights Templar. He was also to pay 40,000 bezants to Richard who donated the right to collect the sum from Guy to Henry. Guy settled in Cyprus in early May.
Aimery remained in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which was reduced to a narrow strip of land along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea from Jaffa to Tyre. King Henry ordered the expulsion of the merchants from Pisa from Acre in May, because he accused them of plotting with Guy of Lusignan. After Aimery intervened on behalf of the merchants, Henry had him arrested. Aimery was only released at the demand of the grand masters of the Templars and the Hospitallers. He retired to Jaffa, which King Richard had granted to Aimery\'s eldest brother, Geoffrey of Lusignan.
## Reign
### Lord of Cyprus {#lord_of_cyprus}
Guy died in May 1194, and bequeathed Cyprus to his elder brother, Geoffrey. However Geoffrey had already returned to Poitou, thus Guy\'s vassals elected Aimery their new lord. Henry of Champagne demanded the right to be consulted about the succession in Cyprus, but the Cypriote noblemen ignored him. Around the same time, Henry replaced Aimery with John of Ibelin as constable of Jerusalem.
Aimery realized that the treasury of Cyprus was almost empty because his brother had granted most landed property on the island to his supporters, according to Ernoul. He summoned his vassals to an assembly. After emphasizing that each of them owned more land than he had, he persuaded them one by one \"either by force, or by friendship, or by agreement\" to surrender some of their rents and lands.
Aimery dispatched an embassy to Pope Celestine III, asking him to set up Roman Catholic dioceses in Cyprus. He also sent his representative, Rainier of Gibelet, to the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI, proposing that he would acknowledge the emperor\'s suzerainty, if the emperor sent a royal crown to him. Aimery primarily wanted to secure the emperor\'s assistance against a potential Byzantine invasion of Cyprus, but he also wanted to strengthen his own legitimacy as king. Rainier of Gibelet swore loyalty to Henry VI on behalf of Aimery in Gelnhausen in October 1196. The emperor who had decided to lead a crusade to the Holy Land promised that he would personally crown Aimery king. He dispatched the archbishops of Brindisi and Trani to take a golden sceptre to Aimery as a symbol of his right to rule Cyprus.
### King of Cyprus {#king_of_cyprus}
Henry VI\'s two envoys landed in Cyprus in April or May 1196. Aimery may have adopted the title of king around that time, because Pope Celestine styled him as king already in a letter in December 1196. In the same month, the Pope set up a Roman Catholic archdiocese in Nicosia with three suffragan bishops in Famagusta, Limassol and Paphos. The Greek Orthodox bishops were not expelled, but their property and income were seized by the new Catholic prelates.
Henry VI\'s chancellor, Conrad, Bishop of Hildesheim, crowned Aimery king in Nicosia in September 1197. Aimery did homage to the chancellor. The noblemen who owned fiefs in both Cyprus and the Kingdom of Jerusalem wanted to bring about a reconciliation between Aimery and Henry of Champagne. One of them, Baldwin of Beisan, Constable of Cyprus, persuaded King Henry to visit Cyprus in early 1197. The two kings made peace, agreeing that Aimery\'s three sons were to marry Henry\'s three daughters. Henry also renounced the debt that Aimery still owed to him for Cyprus and allowed Aimery to garrison his troops at Jaffa. Aimery sent Reynald Barlais to take possession of Jaffa. Aimery again used the title of Constable of Jerusalem in November 1197, which suggests that he had also recovered that office as a consequence of his treaty with Henry.
### King of two realms {#king_of_two_realms}
Henry of Champagne fell from the window in his palace and died in Acre on 10 September 1197. The aristocratic-yet-impoverished Raoul of Saint Omer was one of the possible candidates to succeed him, but the grand masters of the military orders opposed him vehemently. A few days later, Al-Adil I, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, occupied Jaffa.
Conrad of Wittelsbach, the archbishop of Mainz, who arrived to Acre on 20 September, was the first to propose that the crown should be offered to Aimery. Since Aimery\'s first wife had died, he could marry the widowed queen of Jerusalem, Isabella I. Although Aymar, the patriarch of Jerusalem, stated that the marriage would be uncanonical, Joscius, archbishop of Tyre, started negotiations with Aimery who accepted the offer. The patriarch also withdrew his objections and crowned Aimery and Isabella in Tyre in January 1198.
The Cypriot Army fought for the Kingdom of Jerusalem during Aimery\'s rule, but otherwise, he administered his two realms separately. Even before his coronation, Aimery united his forces with the German crusaders who were under the command of Duke Henry I of Brabant to launch a campaign against the Ayyubid troops. They forced Al-Adil to withdraw and captured Beirut on 21 October. He laid siege to Toron, but he had to lift the siege on 2 February, because the German crusaders decided to return to the Holy Roman Empire after learning that Emperor Henry VI had died.
Aimery was riding at Tyre when four German knights attacked him in March 1198. His retainers rescued him and captured the four knights. Aimery accused Raoul of Saint Omer of hiring the assailants and sentenced him to banishment without a trial by his peers. At Raoul\'s demand, the case was submitted to the High Court of Jerusalem which held that Aimery had unlawfully banished Raoul. Nevertheless, Raoul voluntarily left the kingdom and settled in Tripoli, because he knew that he had lost Aimery\'s goodwill.
Aimery signed a truce with Al-Adil on 1 July 1198, securing the possession of the coast from Acre as far as to Antioch for the crusaders for five years and eight months. The Byzantine emperor, Alexios III Angelos, did not abandon the idea of recovering Cyprus. He promised that he would help a new crusade if Pope Innocent III excommunicated Aimery to enable a Byzantine invasion in 1201, but Innocent refused him, stating that the Byzantines had lost their right to Cyprus when Richard I conquered the island in 1191.
Aimery kept the peace with the Muslims, even when Reynald II of Dampierre, who arrived at the head of 300 French crusaders, demanded that he launch a campaign against the Muslims in early 1202. After Aimery reminded him that more than 300 soldiers were needed to wage war against the Ayyubids, Reynald left the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the Principality of Antioch. An Egyptian emir seized a fortress near Sidon and made plundering raids against the neighbouring territory. As Al-Adil failed to force the emir to respect the truce, Aimery\'s fleet seized 20 Egyptian ships and he invaded Al-Adil\'s realm. In retaliation, Al-Adil\'s son, Al-Mu\'azzam Isa plundered the region of Acre. In May 1204, Aimery\'s fleet sacked a small town in the Nile Delta in Egypt. The envoys of Aimery and Al-Adil signed a new truce for six years in September 1204. Al-Adil ceded Jaffa and Ramleh to the Kingdom of Jerusalem and simplified the Christian pilgrims\' visits to Jerusalem and Nazareth.
After eating an excess of white mullet, Aimery fell seriously ill. He died after a short illness on 1 April 1205. His six-year-old son, Hugh I, succeeded him in Cyprus; and Queen Isabella ruled the Kingdom of Jerusalem until her own death four days later.
## Legacy
Historian Mary Nickerson Hardwicke described Aimery as a \"self-assured, politically astute, sometimes hard, seldom sentimentally indulgent\" ruler. His rule was a period of peace and consolidation. He initiated the revision of the laws of the Kingdom of Jerusalem to specify royal prerogatives. The lawyers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem held him in high esteem. One of them, John of Ibelin, emphasized that Aimery had governed both Cyprus and Jerusalem \"well and wisely\" until his death.
## Family
Aimery\'s first wife, Eschiva of Ibelin, was the elder daughter of Baldwin of Ibelin, lord of Mirabel and Ramleh, and Richelda of Beisan. They had five children:
- Bourgogne, who married (1) Raymond VI of Toulouse in 1193 (div 1196 with no issue); (2) Walter of Montbéliard in 1204. Walter was the regent of Cyprus for her younger brother, Hugh I, from 1205 to 1210.
- Helvis, who married Raymond-Roupen, the prince of Antioch from 1216 to 1219.
- Guy, who died young
- John, who died young
- Hugh I, who married Alice of Champagne
Aimery\'s second wife, Isabella I of Jerusalem, was the only daughter of Amalric I of Jerusalem and Maria Komnene. They had three children:
- Sybilla, who was the second wife of Leo I, king of Armenia.
- Melisende, who married Bohemond IV of Antioch.
- Amalric, who died during childhood, 2 February 1205.
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1,873 |
Anthemius of Tralles
|
**Anthemius of Tralles** (*Ἀνθέμιος ὁ Τραλλιανός*, Medieval Greek: `{{IPA|el|anˈθemios o traliaˈnos|}}`{=mediawiki}, *Anthémios o Trallianós*; `{{c.|lk=no|474}}`{=mediawiki} -- 533 `{{abbr|x|sometime between}}`{=mediawiki} 558)`{{r|Boyer}}`{=mediawiki} was a Byzantine Greek from Tralles who worked as a geometer and architect in Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. With Isidore of Miletus, he designed the Hagia Sophia for Justinian I. `{{anchor|History|Biography}}`{=mediawiki}
## Life
Anthemius was one of the five sons of Stephanus of Tralles, a physician. His brothers were Dioscorus, Alexander, Olympius, and Metrodorus. Dioscorus followed his father\'s profession in Tralles; Alexander did so in Rome and became one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius became a noted lawyer; and Metrodorus worked as a grammarian in Constantinople.
Anthemius was said to have annoyed his neighbor Zeno in two ways: first, by engineering a miniature earthquake by sending steam through leather tubes he had fixed among the joists and flooring of Zeno\'s parlor while he was entertaining friends and, second, by simulating thunder and lightning and flashing intolerable light into Zeno\'s eyes from a slightly hollowed mirror. In addition to his familiarity with steam, some dubious authorities credited Anthemius with a knowledge of gunpowder or other explosive compound.
## Mathematics
Anthemius was a capable mathematician. In the course of his treatise *On Burning Mirrors*, he intended to facilitate the construction of surfaces to reflect light to a single point, he described the string construction of the ellipse`{{r|Boyer}}`{=mediawiki} and assumed a property of ellipses not found in Apollonius of Perga\'s *Conics*: the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point. His work also includes the first practical use of the directrix: having given the focus and a double ordinate, he used the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola. This work was later known to Arab mathematicians such as Alhazen.
Eutocius of Ascalon\'s commentary on Apollonius\'s *Conics* was dedicated to Anthemius.`{{r|Boyer}}`{=mediawiki}
## Architecture
As an architect, Anthemius is best known for his work designing the Hagia Sophia. He was commissioned with Isidore of Miletus by Justinian I shortly after the earlier church on the site burned down in 532 but died early on in the project. He is also said to have repaired the flood defenses at Daras.
## Editions of *On Burning-Glasses* {#editions_of_on_burning_glasses}
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1,874 |
Absalon
|
**Absalon** (c. 1128`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}21 March 1201) was a Danish statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church who served as the bishop of Roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and archbishop of Lund from 1178 until his death. He was the foremost politician and church father of Denmark in the second half of the 12th century, and was the closest advisor of King Valdemar I of Denmark. He was a key figure in the Danish policies of territorial expansion in the Baltic Sea, Europeanization in close relationship with the Holy See, and reform in the relation between the Church and the public. He combined the ideals of Gregorian Reform with loyal support of a strong monarchical power.
Absalon was born into the powerful *Hvide* clan, and owned great land possessions. He endowed several church institutions, most prominently his family\'s Sorø Abbey. He was granted lands by the crown, and built the first fortification of the city that evolved into modern-day Copenhagen. His titles were passed on to his nephews Anders Sunesen and Peder Sunesen. He died in 1201, and was interred at Sorø Abbey.
## Early life {#early_life}
Absalon was born around 1128 near Sorø, Zealand.`{{fact|date=January 2021}}`{=mediawiki} Due to his name being unusual in Denmark, it is speculated that he was baptized on the Danish \"Absalon\" name day, 30 October. He was the son of Asser Rig, a magnate of the *Hvide* clan from Fjenneslev on Zealand, and Inger Eriksdotter. He was also a kinsman of Archbishop Eskil of Lund. He grew up at the castle of his father, and was brought up alongside his older brother Esbern Snare and the young prince Valdemar, who later became King Valdemar I of Denmark. During the civil war following the death of Eric III of Denmark in 1146, Absalon travelled abroad to study theology in Paris, while Esbern fought for Valdemar\'s ascension to the throne. In Paris, he was influenced by the Gregorian Reform ideals of churchly independence from monarchical rule. He also befriended the canon William of Æbelholt at the Abbey of St Genevieve, whom he later made abbot of Eskilsø Abbey.
Absalon first appears in Saxo Grammaticus\'s contemporary chronicle *Gesta Danorum* at the end of the civil war, in the brokering of the peace agreement between Sweyn III and Valdemar at St. Alban\'s Priory in Odense. He was a guest at the subsequent Roskilde banquet given in 1157 by Sweyn for his rivals Canute V and Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination by Sweyn on this occasion, and escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed them. Absalon probably did not take part in the following battle of Grathe Heath in 1157, where Sweyn was defeated and slain. This led to Valdemar ascending to the Danish throne. On Good Friday 1158, bishop `{{interlanguage link|Asser of Roskilde|qid=Q12302360}}`{=mediawiki} died, and Absalon was eventually elected bishop of Roskilde on Zealand with the help of Valdemar, as the king\'s reward for *Hvide* family support.
## Bishop and advisor {#bishop_and_advisor}
Absalon was a close counsellor of Valdemar, and chief promoter of the Danish crusades against the Wends. During the Danish civil war, Denmark had been open to coastal raids by the Wends. It was Absalon\'s intention to clear the Baltic Sea of the Wendish pirates who inhabited its southern littoral zone, which was later called Pomerania. The pirates had raided the Danish coasts during the civil war of Sweyn III, Canute V, and Valdemar, to the point where at the accession of Valdemar one-third of Denmark lay wasted and depopulated. Absalon formed a guardian fleet, built coastal defenses, and led several campaigns against the Wends. He even advocated forgiving the earlier enemies of Valdemar, which helped stabilize Denmark internally.
### Wendish campaigns {#wendish_campaigns}
The first expedition against the Wends conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160. These expeditions were successful, but brought no lasting victories. What started out as mere retribution, eventually evolved into full-fledged campaigns of expansion with religious motives. In 1164 began twenty years of crusades against the Wends, sometimes with the help of German duke Henry the Lion, sometimes in opposition to him.
In 1168 the chief Wendish fortress at Arkona in Rügen, containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit, was conquered. The Wends agreed to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona, Absalon proceeded by sea to Charenza, in the midst of Rügen, the political capital of the Wends and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. Absalon, with only Bishop Sweyn of Aarhus and twelve \"housecarls\", thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen. Rügen was then subjected to Absalon\'s Bishopric of Roskilde. The destruction of this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon to considerably reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dziwnów on the isle of Wolin. Absalon\'s last military exploit came in 1184, off Stralsund at Whitsun, when he soundly defeated a Pomeranian fleet that had attacked Denmark\'s vassal, Jaromar of Rügen.
### Policies
Absalon\'s main political goal was to free Denmark from entanglements with the Holy Roman Empire. Absalon reformed the Danish church organisation to closer match Holy See praxis, and worked to keep Denmark a close ally of the Holy See. However, during the schism between Pope Alexander III and Antipope Victor IV, Absalon stayed loyal to Valdemar even as he joined the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in supporting Victor IV. This caused a split within the Danish church, as it possibly forced Eskil of Lund into exile around 1161, despite Abaslon\'s attempts to keep the Danish church united. It was contrary to Absalon\'s advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Dole in 1162. When Valdemar returned to Denmark, he was convinced to strengthen the Danevirke fortifications at the German border, with the support of Absalon.
Absalon built churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the Cistercians and Augustinians, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment. In 1162, Absalon transformed the Sorø Abbey of his family from Benedictine to Cistercian, granting it lands from his personal holdings. In 1167, Absalon was granted the land around the city of Havn (English: \"Harbour\"), and built there a castle for coastal defense against the Wends. Havn quickly expanded into one of Scandinavia\'s most important centers of trade, and eventually evolved into modern-day Copenhagen. It was also Absalon who held the first Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. He was interested in history and culture, and commissioned Saxo Grammaticus to write *Gesta Danorum*, a comprehensive chronicle of the history of the Danes. In 1171, Absalon issued the \"Zealand church law\" (*Sjællandske Kirkelov*), which reduced the number of Canonical Law offenses for which the church could fine the public, while instituting the tithe payment system. Violation of the law was specified as subject to a secular legal process.
## Archbishop of Lund {#archbishop_of_lund}
Archbishop Eskil returned from exile in 1167. Eskil agreed on canonizing Valdemar\'s father Knud Lavard in 1170, with Absalon assisting him at the feast. When Eskil stepped down as Archbishop of Lund in 1177, he chose Absalon as his successor. Absalon initially resisted the new position, as he did not want to lose his power position on Zealand, but complied with Papal orders to do so in 1178. By a unique Papal dispensation, Absalon was allowed to simultaneously maintain his post as Bishop of Roskilde. As the Archbishop of Lund, Absalon utilized ombudsmen from Zealand, demanded unfree labour from the peasantry, and instituted tithes. He was a harsh and effective ruler, who cleared all Orthodox Christian liturgical remnants in favour of Papal standards. A rebellion in the Scanian peasantry forced him to flee to Zealand in 1180, but he returned and subdued the Scanians with the help of Valdemar.
Valdemar died in 1182 and was succeeded by his son, Canute VI, whom Absalon also served as counsellor. Under Canute VI, Absalon was the chief policymaker in Danish politics. Absalon kept his hostile attitude to the Holy Roman Empire. On the accession of Canute VI in 1182, an imperial ambassador arrived at Roskilde to get the new king to swear fealty to Frederick Barbarossa, but Absalon resolutely withstood him.
## Death
When Absalon retired from military service in 1184 at the age of fifty-seven, he resigned the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, the later king Valdemar II. He instead confined himself to the administration of the Danish empire. In 1192, Absalon made his nephew Peder Sunesen his successor as Bishop of Roskilde, while his other nephew Anders Sunesen was named the chancellor of Canute VI. Absalon died at Sorø Abbey on 21 March 1201, 73 years old, with his last will granting his personal holdings to the Abbey, apart from Fjenneslev which went to Esbern Snarre. He had already given Copenhagen to the Bishopric of Roskilde. Absalon was interred at Sorø Abbey, and was succeeded as Archbishop of Lund by Anders Sunesen.
## Legacy
Saxo Grammaticus\' *Gesta Danorum* was not finished until after the death of Absalon, but Absalon was one of the chief heroic figures of the chronicle, which was to be the main source of knowledge about early Danish history. Absalon left a legacy as the foremost politician and churchfather of Denmark in the 12th century. Absalon was equally great as churchman, statesman, and warrior. His policy of expansion was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic for three generations. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole indication of their religious role was to avoid the *shedding of blood* by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties.
In the 2000s, \"Absalon\" was adopted as the name for a class of Royal Danish Navy vessels, and the lead vessel of the class. HDMS Absalon (L16) and *Esbern Snare* (L17) were launched and commissioned by Denmark in 2004 and 2005.
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1,875 |
Adhemar of Le Puy
|
{{ Infobox Christian leader \| type = bishop \| name = Adhemar of Le Puy \| image = Adhémar de Monteil à Antioche.jpeg \| caption = A mitred Adhémar de Monteil carrying the Holy Lance in one of the battles of the First Crusade \| title = Bishop of Le Puy-en-Velay \| church = Catholic Church \| see = Diocese of Le Puy-en-Velay \| term = 1082--1098 \| predecessor = Stephan de Polignac \| successor = Pons de Tournon \| birth_date = 1055 \| birth_place = Valentinois, Kingdom of France \| death_date = 1 August 1098 (aged 43) \| death_place = Principality of Antioch }}
**Adhemar** (also known as **Adémar**, **Aimar**, or **Aelarz**) **de Monteil** (died 1 August 1098) was one of the principal figures of the First Crusade and was bishop of Puy-en-Velay from before 1087. He was the chosen representative of Pope Urban II for the expedition to the Holy Land. Remembered for his martial prowess, he led knights and men into battle and fought beside them, particularly at the Battle of Dorylaeum and Siege of Antioch. Adhemar is said to have carried the Holy Lance in the Crusaders' desperate breakout at Antioch on 28 June 1098, in which superior Islamic forces under the atabeg Kerbogha were routed, securing the city for the Crusaders. He died in 1098 due to illness.
## Life
Born around 1045 into the family of the Counts of Valentinois and elected Bishop of Le Puy around 1080, he was an advocate of the Gregorian Reform. Among his supporters were the future Pope Urban II and Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse and the richest, most powerful nobleman in France. He was also said to have gone on pilgrimage to Jerusalem around 1086. He was the brother of William Hugh of Monteil, who was also a Crusader in the First Crusade. Adhemar most likely met Pope Urban II, when he visited Puy in August 1095.
At the Council of Clermont in 1095, Adhemar showed great zeal for the crusade (there is evidence that Urban II had conferred with Adhemar before the council). Adhemar was named apostolic legate and appointed to lead the crusade by Pope Urban II on 27 November 1095. In part, Adhemar was selected to lead because he had already undertaken a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1086 and 1087. Following the announcement of the Crusade Adhemar spent the next year raising money and recruiting men. Departing on 15 August 1096, he accompanied Raymond of Toulouse and his army to the east. Whilst Raymond and the other leaders often quarrelled with each other over the leadership of the crusade, Adhemar was always recognized as the spiritual leader of the crusade and was widely respected by the majority of the Crusaders.
During the leg of the trip from Durazzo to Constantinople, in the Valley of Pelagonia, Adhemar was set upon by a group of Pecheneg mercenaries, when he had wandered too far from the majority of the Crusader forces. The Pechenegs beat and robbed Adhemar, but began to fight among themselves over his belongings; Adhemar was saved by Crusader forces who had noticed the disturbance. Once the army had reached Thessalonica, Adhemar decided to stay there for some time, due to sickness, whilst the Crusader forces moved onward. Adhemar eventually was able to rejoin the Crusaders.
Adhemar negotiated with Alexius I Comnenus at Constantinople, reestablished some discipline among the crusaders at Nicaea, fought a crucial role at the Battle of Dorylaeum and was largely responsible for sustaining morale during the siege of Antioch through various religious rites including fasting and special observances of holy days. One such time he did this, was after an earthquake during the siege of Antioch, he had the Crusaders fast for three days and had the priests and clergy perform mass and prayers. Adhemar also ordered the Crusaders to shave and wear a cross in an attempt to stop Crusaders from attacking one another by accident. After the capture of the city in June 1098 and the subsequent siege led by Kerbogha, Adhemar organized a procession through the streets and had the gates locked so that the Crusaders, many of whom had begun to panic, would be unable to leave the city. He was extremely skeptical of Peter Bartholomew\'s discovery in Antioch of the Holy Lance, especially because he knew such a relic already existed in Constantinople; however, he was willing to let the Crusader army believe it was real if it raised their morale. Adhemar was protected by a band of Crusaders led by Henry of Esch to preserve the (albeit suspect) relic. In June 1098 Adhemar fell prey to sickness and in the following months his condition would deteriorate.
When Kerbogha was defeated, Adhemar organized a council in an attempt to settle the leadership disputes, but died on 1 August 1098, probably of typhus. Adhemar was buried in Antioch within the Basilica of St Peter. The disputes among the higher nobles went unsolved and the march to Jerusalem was delayed for months. However, the lower-class soldiers continued to think of Adhemar as a leader. Following his death, Adhemar reportedly appeared in several visions of various Crusaders. One of the first was reported by Peter Bartholomew who stated that Adhemar appeared to him stating that, due to his skepticism of the Holy Lance, he had spent a few days in hell and was only rescued because a candle had been burned in his memory, he had given a gift to the Shrine where the Holy Lance was kept, and due to the prayers of Bohemond. At the siege of Jerusalem, Peter Desiderius claimed that to have received a vision from Adhemar himself. Peter also claimed that, in this vision, Adhemar had instructed him to have the Crusaders fast and lead a procession around the Walls of Jerusalem. This was done and Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders in 1099. Later, Stephen of Valence also claimed to have had visions featuring Adhemar in which Adhemar spoke to Stephen of several relics. Adhemar told Stephen great reverence should be given to the cross Adhemar had taken with him on the crusade. He also told Stephen how the Holy Lance should be treated and told Stephen to give Stephen\'s ring to Count Raymond. He told Stephen that, through this ring, Count Raymond would be able to call upon the power of Mary.
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1,879 |
Alfonso Jordan
|
**Alfonso Jordan**, also spelled **Alfons Jordan** or **Alphonse Jourdain** (1103--1148), was the Count of Tripoli (1105--09), Count of Rouergue (1109--48) and Count of Toulouse, Margrave of Provence and Duke of Narbonne (1112--48).
## Life
Alfonso was the son of Raymond IV of Toulouse by his third wife, Elvira of Castile. He was born in the castle of Mont Pèlerin in Tripoli while his father was on the First Crusade. He was given the name \"Jourdain\" after being baptised in the Jordan River. Alfonso\'s father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, William Jordan, Count of Cerdagne, until he was five. He was then taken to Europe, where his half-brother Bertrand had given him the county of Rouergue. Upon Bertrand\'s death in 1112, Alfonso succeeded to the county of Toulouse and marquisate of Provence.
In 1114, Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who claimed Toulouse by right of his wife Philippa, daughter of Count William IV, invaded the county and conquered it. Alfonso recovered a part in 1119, but he was not in full control until 1123. When at last successful, he was excommunicated by Pope Callixtus II for having damaged the abbey of Saint-Gilles and assaulting the monks.
Alfonso next had to fight for his rights in Provence against Count Raymond Berengar III of Barcelona. Not until September 1125 did their war end in \"peace and concord\" (*pax et concordia*). At this stage, Alfonso was master of the regions lying between the Pyrenees and the Alps, the Auvergne and the sea. His ascendancy was, according to one commentator, an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished.
In March 1126, Alfonso was at the court of King Alfonso VII of León when he acceded to the throne. According to the *Chronica Adefonsi imperatoris*, Alfonso and Suero Vermúdez took the city of León from opposition magnates and handed it over to Alfonso VII. Among those who may have accompanied Alfonso on one of his many extended stays in Spain was the troubadour Marcabru.
By 1132, Alfonso was embroiled in a succession war over the county of Melgueil against Count Berengar Raymond of Provence. This brief conflict was resolved with Alfonso\'s defeat and Berengar marrying Beatrice, heiress of Melgueil.
Alfonso seized the viscounty of Narbonne in 1134, and ruled it during the minority of Viscountess Ermengarde, only restoring it to her in 1143. In 1141 King Louis VII of France pressed the claim of his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, granddaughter of Philippa, even besieging Toulouse, but without result. That same year Alfonso Jordan was again in Spain, making a pilgrimage to Saint James of Compostela, when he proposed a peace between the king of León and García Ramírez of Navarre, which became the basis for subsequent negotiations.
In 1144, Alfonso again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the citizens of Montpellier against their lord. In 1145, Bernard of Clairvaux addressed a letter to him full of concern about a heretic named Henry in the diocese of Toulouse. Bernard even went there to preach against the heresy, an early expression of Catharism. A second time he was excommunicated; but in 1146 he took the cross (i.e., vowed to go on crusade) at a meeting in Vézelay called by Louis VII. In August 1147, he embarked for the near east on the Second Crusade. He lingered on the way in Italy and probably in Constantinople, where he may have met Emperor Manuel I.
Alfonso finally arrived at Acre in 1148. He died at Caesarea, which was followed by accusations of poisoning, levelled against either Eleanor of Aquitaine or Melisende of Jerusalem, who may have wanted to eliminate him as a rival to her brother-in-law Count Raymond II of Tripoli.
Alfonso and Faydiva d\'Uzès had:
1. Raymond, who succeeded him
2. Alfonso II
3.
4. Faydiva (died 1154), married to Count Humbert III of Savoy
5. Agnes (died 1187)
6. Laurentia, who married Count Bernard III of Comminges
He also had an illegitimate son, Bertrand.
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1,880 |
Ambroise
|
**Ambroise**, sometimes **Ambroise of Normandy**, (flourished c. 1190) was a Norman poet and chronicler of the Third Crusade, author of a work called **L\'Estoire de la guerre sainte**, which describes in rhyming Old French verse the adventures of *Richard Cœur de Lion\]\]* as a crusader.
## Life
The credit for detecting its value belongs to Gaston Paris, although his edition (1897) was partially anticipated by the editors of the **\[\[Monumenta Germaniae Historica\]\]**, who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores (1885). Ambroise followed Richard I as a noncombatant, and not improbably as a court-minstrel. He speaks as an eyewitness of the king\'s doings at Messina, in Cyprus, at the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city.
## Commentary on his work {#commentary_on_his_work}
Ambroise is surprisingly accurate in his chronology; though he did not complete his work before 1195, it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his pilgrimage. He shows no greater political insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naïve vivacity which compels attention. He is by no means an impartial source: he is prejudiced against the Saracens, against the French, and against all the rivals or enemies of his master, including the *Polein* party which supported Conrad of Montferrat against Guy of Lusignan. He is rather to be treated as a biographer than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects. Nonetheless, he is an interesting primary source for the events of the years 1190--1192 in the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Books 2--6 of the *Itinerarium Regis Ricardi*, a Latin prose narrative of the same events apparently compiled by Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London, are closely related to Ambroise\'s poem. They were formerly sometimes regarded as the first-hand narrative on which Ambroise based his work, but that can no longer be maintained.
### History of the poem {#history_of_the_poem}
The poem is known to us only through one Vatican manuscript, and long escaped the notice of historians.
## Published edition {#published_edition}
- Ambroise, *L´Estoire de la guerre sainte*. Paris, 1897: <http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6517331f.r>
- Ambroise, *Itinerarium regis Ricardi*. London, 1920: <https://archive.org/details/itinerariumregis00richuoft>
- Ambroise, *The History of the Holy War*, translated by Marianne Ailes, Boydell Press, 2003.
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1,887 |
Alexius
|
**Alexius** is the Latinized form of the given name **Alexios** (*Αλέξιος*, polytonic *Ἀλέξιος*, \"defender\", cf. Alexander), especially common in the Byzantine Empire. The female form is **Alexia** (*Αλεξία*) and its variants such as Alessia (the masculine form of which is Alessio) in Italian.
The name belongs to the most ancient attested Greek names (a-re-ke-se-u in the Linear B tablets KN Df 1229 and MY Fu 718).
## Rulers
- Alexios I Komnenos (1048--1118), Byzantine emperor
- Alexios II Komnenos (1167--1183), Byzantine emperor
- Alexios III, Byzantine emperor
- Alexios IV, Byzantine emperor
- Alexios V Doukas, Byzantine emperor
- Alexios I of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
- Alexios II of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
- Alexios III of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
- Alexios IV of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
- Alexios V of Trebizond, Emperor of Trebizond
- Alexius Mikhailovich (1629--1676), Tsar of Russia
- Alexius Petrovich (1690--1718), Russian tsarevich
## Religious figures {#religious_figures}
- Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow (1354--1378)
- Patriarch Alexius I of Constantinople (1025--1043)
- Alexius (c. 1425--1488), Russian archpriest who converted to Judaism
- Patriarch Alexius I of Moscow and All Russia (r. 1945--1970)
- Patriarch Alexius II of Moscow and All Russia (r. 1990--2008)
- Alexius of Nicaea, metropolitan bishop
- Saint Alexius of Rome, fifth-century eastern saint
## Other
- Alexios Apokaukos, Byzantine statesman
- Alexios Aspietes, Byzantine governor
- Alexios Branas, Byzantine general
- Alexios Halebian, American tennis player
- Alexius Meinong, Austrian philosopher
- Alexios Mosele (Caesar), Byzantine heir-apparent
- Alexios Palaiologos (despot), Byzantine heir-apparent
- Alexios Philanthropenos, Byzantine general
- Alexios Raoul (protovestiarios), Byzantine general
- Alexios Strategopoulos, Byzantine general
- Alexios Xiphias, Byzantine Catepan of Italy
- Alexios (Assassin\'s Creed), a fictional character in *Assassin\'s Creed: Odyssey*
## Alexius in other languages {#alexius_in_other_languages}
- English -- Alexis, Aleck
- German -- Alexius, Alexis
- Greek -- Αλέξιος \[*Alexios*\], Αλέξης \[*Alexis*\]
- French -- Alexis
- Italian -- Alessio
- Spanish -- Alejo, Alexis
- Portuguese -- Aleixo
- Latvian -- Alexius, Aleksis, Aleksejs
- Polish -- Aleksy
- Czech -- Aleš, Alexej
- Slovak -- Aleš
- Estonian -- Aleksei
- Bulgarian -- Алексей \[Aleksej\]
- Serbian -- Aleksa
- Finnish -- Aleksi, Aleksis
- Macedonian -- Aleksio
- Georgian -- ალექსი, \[*Aleksi* \]
- Belarusian -- Аляксей \[Aleksiej\]
- Russian -- Алексей \[*Alexei*, *Alexey*, *Aleksei*, *Aleksey\]*, Алексий \[*Alexiy\]*, Алёша \[*Alyosha\]*, Лёша \[*Lyosha*\]
- Ukrainan -- Олексій \[*Oleksii*, *Oleksiy*\], Олекса \[*Oleksa*\]
- Hungarian -- Elek
Category:Given names of Greek language origin Category:Greek masculine given names Category:Masculine given names Category:Given names
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1,894 |
Africa Alphabet
|
The **Africa Alphabet** (also **International African Alphabet** or **IAI alphabet**) is a set of letters designed as the basis for Latin alphabets for the languages of Africa. It was initially developed in 1928 by the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures from a combination of the English alphabet and the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Development was assisted by native speakers of African languages and led by Diedrich Hermann Westermann, who served as director of the organization from 1926 to 1939. The aim of the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures, later renamed the International African Institute (IAI), was to enable people to write for practical and scientific purposes in all African languages without the need of diacritics.
The Africa Alphabet influenced the development of orthographies of many African languages, serving \"as the basis for the transcription\" of about 60 by one count. Discussion of how to harmonize these with other systems led to several largely abortive proposals such as the African Reference Alphabet and the World Orthography.
## Overview
The Africa Alphabet was built from the consonant letters of the English alphabet and the vowel letters, and any additional consonants, of the IPA. Capital forms of IPA letters were invented as necessary. Thus J and Y are pronounced `{{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPAblink|j}}`{=mediawiki} as in English, while Ɔ, Ɛ and Ŋ are pronounced `{{IPAblink|ɔ}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPAblink|ɛ}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPAblink|ŋ}}`{=mediawiki} as in the IPA.
## Characters
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
: International African Alphabet
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1,896 |
Acquire
|
***Acquire*** is a board game published by 3M in 1964 that involves multi-player mergers and acquisitions. It was one of the most popular games in the 3M Bookshelf games series published in the 1960s, and the only one still published in the United States.
## Description
*Acquire* is a board game for 2--6 players in which players attempt to earn the most money by developing and merging hotel chains. When a chain in which a player owns stock is acquired by a larger chain, players earn money based on the size of the acquired chain. At the end of the game, all players liquidate their stock in order to determine which player has the most money. It is played with play money, stock certificates, and tiles representing hotels that are arranged on the board. The components of the game have varied over the years. In particular, the tiles have been made from wood, plastic, and cardboard in various editions of the game.
### Set up {#set_up}
Before play begins, the players must decide whether the numbers of players\' shares will be public or private information. Keeping this information private can greatly extend the game since players will be less certain of their status, and therefore less willing to end the game.
Each player receives play cash and a small random set of playing tiles and becomes the founder of a nascent hotel chain by drawing and placing a tile representing a hotel on the board. Tiles are ordered, and correspond to spaces on the board. Position of the starting tiles determines order of play.
### Gameplay
Play consists of placing a tile on the board and optionally buying stock. The placed tile may found a new hotel chain, grow an existing one or merge two or more chains. Chains are sets of edge-wise adjacent tiles. Founders receive a share of stock in new chains. A chain can become \"safe\", immune to acquisition, by attaining a specified size. Following placement of a tile, the player may then buy a limited number of shares of stock in existing chains. Shares have a market value determined by the size and stature of the hotel chain. At the end of his or her turn, the player receives a new tile to replace the one played.
When mergers occur, the smaller chain becomes defunct, and its tiles are then part of the acquiring chain. The two largest shareholders in the acquired chain receive cash bonuses; players may sell their shares in the defunct chain, trade them in for shares of the acquiring chain, or keep them. Mergers between 3 or more chains are handled in order from larger to smaller.
### Ending the game {#ending_the_game}
A player during their turn may declare the game at an end if the largest chain exceeds a specified size (about 40% of the board), or all chains on the board are too large to be acquired. When the game ends, shareholder bonuses are paid to the two largest shareholders of each chain, and players cash out their shares at market price (shares in any defunct chains are worthless). The player with the most money wins.
## Publication history {#publication_history}
When Sid Sackson was a child, he played a Milton Bradley gambling-themed board game titled *Lotto*. When he became a game designer, Sackson reworked the game into a wargame he called *Lotto War*. In 1962, Sackson and Alex Randolph were commissioned by 3M to start a new games division. When Sackson submitted *Lotto War* to 3M the following year, he retitled the game *Vacation*. 3M suggested changing the name to *Acquire*, and Sackson agreed. The game was test marketed in several U.S. cities in 1963, and production began in 1964 as a part of the 3M Bookshelf games series.
In 1976, the 3M game division was sold to Avalon Hill and *Acquire* became part of their bookcase game series. Four years later, Avalon Hill published the computer game *Computer Acquire* for the PET, Apple II, and TRS-80.
In 1998, Avalon Hill became part of Hasbro. The new owners reissued a slightly revised version of *Acquire* in 2000, in which the hotel chains were replaced by fictitious corporations, though the actual gameplay was unchanged. Hasbro soon thereafter discontinued it. In the mid-2000s, the game was transferred to a Hasbro subsidiary, Wizards of the Coast (WotC). In 2008, WotC celebrated \"*50 years of Avalon Hill Games\"* with the release of a new edition of *Acquire*, although the game was not yet 50 years old. In 2016, the game was transferred back to the Hasbro games division and republished in 2016 under the Avalon label, with hotels chains reinstated.
## Reception
In *The Playboy Winner\'s Guide to Board Games*, game designer Jon Freeman compared *Cartel* (*A Gamut of Games*) and *Acquire*, noting that both were \"better games which focus on the joining of companies into conglomerates.\" Freeman thought *Acquire* had an edge over *Cartel* \"in the quality of its components \[\...\] *Acquire*{{\'}}s higher price is unquestionably reflected in its packaging and presentation \[and deserves\] a place in your game library.\"
*Games Magazine* included *Acquire* in their \"Top 100 Games\" in four consecutive years:
- In 1980 the editors praised it as a \"classic game of getting in on the ground floor\" and \"proof that you need money to make money\", noting that \"a delicate sense of timing is important, but greed and a lust for power also help.\"
- In 1981, the editors noted that it \"combines the flavors of Monopoly and the stock market\" and cautioned that \"Since the object is to acquire cash, careful timing of investments (and raids on competitors\' chains!) is critical to winning\".
- In 1982, the editors commented that \"Among family games, this is one of the most strategic.\"
- In 1983, the editors commented \"Adding to chains increases their value, but you must anticipate mergers, which occur when someone plays the right connecting tile at the right time.\"
In the December 1993 edition of *Dragon* (Issue 200), Allen Varney advised readers to ignore the hotel theme: \"Supposedly a game of hotel acquisitions and mergers, this is actually a superb abstract game of strategy and capital.\" Varney called the game \"An early masterpiece from \[Sid\] Sackson, game historian and one of the great designers of our time.\"
### Awards
The game was short-listed for the first Spiel des Jahres board game awards in 1979.
*GAMES* magazine inducted *Acquire* into their buyers\' guide Hall of Fame. The magazine\'s stated criteria for the Hall of Fame encompasses \"games that have met or exceeded the highest standards of quality and play value and have been continuously in production for at least 10 years; i.e., classics.\"
*Acquire* was inducted into the Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design\'s Hall of Fame, along with game designer Sid Sackson, in 2011. It is also one of the Mind Sports Olympiad games.
## Reviews
- *Jeux & Stratégie* #1 (as \"Trust\")
- *Jeux & Stratégie* #6
- *Jeux & Stratégie* #51
- *Games & Puzzles* #11
- *Games & Puzzles* #69
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1,905 |
Ambush
|
thumb\|right\|upright=1.3\|French royalist rebels preparing an ambush during the War in the Vendée (*The Ambush* by Évariste Carpentier, 1889) `{{wikt | ambush}}`{=mediawiki}
An **ambush** is a surprise attack carried out by people lying in wait in a concealed position. The concealed position itself or the concealed person(s) may also be called an \"`{{linktext|ambush}}`{=mediawiki}\". Ambushes as a basic fighting tactic of soldiers or of criminals have been used consistently throughout history, from ancient to modern warfare. The term \"ambush\" is also used in animal behavior studies, journalism, and marketing to describe methods of approach and strategy.
In the 20th century, a military ambush might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as at a choke point like a mountain pass. Conversely, it could involve a small irregular band or insurgent group attacking a regular armed-force patrol. Theoretically, a single well-armed, and concealed soldier could ambush other troops in a surprise attack.
In recent centuries, a military ambush can involve the exclusive or combined use of improvised explosive devices (IED). This allows attackers to hit enemy convoys or patrols while minimizing the risk of being exposed to return fire.
## History
The use of ambush tactics by early people dates as far back as two million years when anthropologists have recently suggested that ambush techniques were used to hunt large game.
One example from ancient times is the Battle of the Trebia River. Hannibal encamped within striking distance of the Romans with the Trebia River between them, and placed a strong force of cavalry and infantry in concealment, near the battle zone. He had noticed, says Polybius, a \"place between the two camps, flat indeed and treeless, but well adapted for an ambuscade, as it was traversed by a water-course with steep banks, densely overgrown with brambles and other thorny plants, and here he proposed to lay a stratagem to surprise the enemy\". When the Roman infantry became entangled in combat with his army, the hidden ambush force attacked the Roman infantry in the rear. The result was slaughter and defeat for the Romans. Nevertheless, the battle also displays the effects of good tactical discipline on the part of the ambushed force. Although most of the legions were lost, about 10,000 Romans cut their way through to safety, maintaining unit cohesion. This ability to maintain discipline and break out or maneuver away from a kill zone is a hallmark of good troops and training in any ambush situation.
Ambushes were widely used by the Lusitanians, in particular by their chieftain Viriathus. Their usual tactic, called *concursare*, involved repeatedly charging and retreating, forcing the enemy to eventually give them chase, to set up ambushes in difficult terrain where allied forces would be awaiting. In his first victory, he eluded the siege of Roman praetor Gaius Vetilius and attracted him to a narrow pass next to the Barbesuda river, where he destroyed his army and killed the praetor. Viriathus\'s ability to turn chases into ambushes would grant him victories over a number of Roman generals.
Another Lusitanian ambush was performed by Curius and Apuleius on Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who led a numerically superior army complete with war elephants and Numidian cavalry. The ambush allowed Curius and Apuleius to steal Servilianus\'s loot train. However, a tactic error in their retreat led to the Romans retaking the train and putting the Lusitanians to flight. Viriathus later defeated Servilianus with a surprise attack.`{{page needed|date=August 2019}}`{=mediawiki}
Germanic war chief Arminius sprung an ambush against the Romans at Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This particular ambush was to affect the course of Western history. The Germanic forces demonstrated several principles needed for a successful ambush. They took cover in difficult forested terrain, allowing the warriors time and space to mass without detection. They had the element of surprise, and this was also aided by the defection of Arminius from Roman ranks prior to the battle. They sprang the attack when the Romans were most vulnerable; when they had left their fortified camp, and were on the march in a pounding rainstorm.
The Germans did not dawdle at the hour of decision but attacked quickly, using a massive series of short, rapid, vicious charges against the length of the whole Roman line, with charging units sometimes withdrawing to the forest to regroup while others took their place. The Germans also used blocking obstacles, erecting a trench and earthen wall to hinder Roman movement along the route of the killing zone. The result was a mass slaughter of the Romans and the destruction of three legions. The Germanic victory caused a limit on Roman expansion in the West. Ultimately, it established the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years, until the decline of the Roman influence in the West. The Roman Empire made no further concerted attempts to conquer Germania beyond the Rhine.
There are many notable examples of ambushes during the Roman-Persian Wars. A year after their victory at Carrhae, the Parthians invaded Syria but were driven back after a Roman ambush near Antigonia. Roman Emperor Julian was mortally wounded in an ambush near Samarra in 363 during the retreat from his Persian campaign. A Byzantine invasion of Persian Armenia was repelled by a small force at Anglon who performed a meticulous ambush by using the rough terrain as a force multiplier and concealing in houses. Heraclius\' discovery of a planned ambush by Shahrbaraz in 622 was a decisive factor in his campaign.
### Arabia during Muhammad\'s era {#arabia_during_muhammads_era}
According to Muslim tradition, Islamic Prophet Muhammad used ambush tactics in his military campaigns. His first such use was during the Caravan raids. In the Kharrar caravan raid, Sa\'d ibn Abi Waqqas was ordered to lead a raid against the Quraysh. His group consisted of about twenty Muhajirs. This raid was about a month after the previous one. Sa\'d, with his soldiers, set up an ambush in the valley of Kharrar on the road to Mecca and waited to raid a Meccan caravan returning from Syria. However, the caravan had already passed and the Muslims returned to Medina without any loot.
Arab tribes during Muhammad\'s era also used ambush tactics. One example retold in Muslim tradition is said to have taken place during the First Raid on Banu Thalabah. The Banu Thalabah tribe were already aware of the impending attack; so they lay in wait for the Muslims. When Muhammad ibn Maslama arrived at the site, the Banu Thalabah with 100 men ambushed the Muslims while they were making preparation to sleep and, after a brief resistance, killed them all except for Muhammad ibn Maslama, who feigned death. A Muslim who happened to pass that way found him and assisted him to return to Medina. The raid was unsuccessful.
## Procedure
In modern warfare, an ambush can be employed by ground troops up to platoon size against enemy targets, which may be other ground troops, or possibly vehicles. However, in some situations, especially when deep behind enemy lines, the actual attack will be carried out by a platoon. A company-sized unit will be deployed to support the attack group, setting up and maintaining a forward patrol harbour from which the attacking force will deploy, and to which they will retire after the attack.
### Planning
Ambushes are complex multiphase operations and are therefore usually planned in some detail. First, a suitable killing zone is identified. This is where the ambush will be laid, where enemy units are expected to pass, and gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution, and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a typical example.
Ambush can be described geometrically as:
- **Linear**, when a number of firing units are equally distant from the linear kill zone. It can easily be controlled under all visibility conditions.
- **L-shaped**, when a short leg of firing units are placed to enfilade (fire the length of) the sides of the linear kill zone.
- **V-shaped**, when the firing units are distant from the kill zone where the enemy enters and the firing units lay down bands of intersecting and interlocking fire. This ambush is normally triggered only when the enemy is well into the kill zone. The intersecting bands of fire prevent any attempt of moving out of the kill zone.
### Viet Cong ambush techniques {#viet_cong_ambush_techniques}
#### Ambush criteria {#ambush_criteria}
The terrain for the ambush had to meet strict criteria:
- provide concealment to prevent detection from the ground or air
- enable ambush force to deploy, encircle and divide the enemy
- allow for heavy weapons emplacements to provide sustained fire
- enable the ambush force to set up observation posts for early detection of the enemy
- permit the secret movement of troops to the ambush position and the dispersal of troops during withdrawal
One important feature of the ambush was that the target units should \'pile up\' after being attacked, thus preventing them any easy means of withdrawal from the kill zone and hindering their use of heavy weapons and supporting fire. Terrain was usually selected which would facilitate this and slow down the enemy. Any terrain around the ambush site which was not favourable to the ambushing force, or which offered some protection to the target, was heavily mined and booby trapped or pre-registered for mortars.
#### Ambush units {#ambush_units}
The NVA/VC ambush formations consisted of:
- lead-blocking element
- main-assault element
- rear-blocking element
- observation posts
- command post
Other elements might also be included if the situation demanded, such as a sniper screen along a nearby avenue of approach to delay enemy reinforcements.
#### Command posts {#command_posts}
When deploying into an ambush site, the NVA first occupied several observation posts, placed to detect the enemy as early as possible and to report on the formation it was using, its strength and firepower, as well as to provide early warning to the unit commander. Usually, one main OP and numerous secondary OPs were established. Runners and radios were used to communicate between the OPs and the main command post. The OPs were located so that enemy movement into the ambush could be observed. They would remain in position throughout the ambush to report routes of reinforcement and withdrawal by the enemy, as well as his manoeuvre options. Frequently the OPs were reinforced to squad size and served as flank security. The command post was situated in a central location, frequently on terrain which afforded it a vantage point overlooking the ambush site.
#### Recon methods {#recon_methods}
Reconnaissance elements observing a potential ambush target on the move generally stayed 300--500 meters away. A \"leapfrogging\" recon technique can be used. Surveillance units were echeloned one behind the other. As the enemy drew close to the first, it fell back behind the last recon team, leaving an advance group in its place. This one in turn fell back as the enemy again closed the gap, and the cycle rotated. This method helped keep the enemy under continuous observation from a variety of vantage points, and allowed the recon groups to cover one another.
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1,910 |
Agarose gel electrophoresis
|
**Agarose gel electrophoresis** is a method of gel electrophoresis used in biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and clinical chemistry to separate a mixed population of macromolecules such as DNA or proteins in a matrix of agarose, one of the two main components of agar. The proteins may be separated by charge and/or size (isoelectric focusing agarose electrophoresis is essentially size independent), and the DNA and RNA fragments by length. Biomolecules are separated by applying an electric field to move the charged molecules through an agarose matrix, and the biomolecules are separated by size in the agarose gel matrix.
Agarose gel is easy to cast, has relatively fewer charged groups, and is particularly suitable for separating DNA of size range most often encountered in laboratories, which accounts for the popularity of its use. The separated DNA may be viewed with stain, most commonly under UV light, and the DNA fragments can be extracted from the gel with relative ease. Most agarose gels used are between 0.7--2% dissolved in a suitable electrophoresis buffer.
## Properties of agarose gel {#properties_of_agarose_gel}
Agarose gel is a three-dimensional matrix formed of helical agarose molecules in supercoiled bundles that are aggregated into three-dimensional structures with channels and pores through which biomolecules can pass. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state. The melting temperature is different from the gelling temperature, depending on the sources, agarose gel has a gelling temperature of 35 -- and a melting temperature of 85 --. Low-melting and low-gelling agaroses made through chemical modifications are also available.
Agarose gel has large pore size and good gel strength, making it suitable as an anticonvection medium for the electrophoresis of DNA and large protein molecules. The pore size of a 1% gel has been estimated from 100 nm to 200--500 nm, and its gel strength allows gels as dilute as 0.15% to form a slab for gel electrophoresis. Low-concentration gels (0.1--0.2%) however are fragile and therefore hard to handle. Agarose gel has lower resolving power than polyacrylamide gel for DNA but has a greater range of separation, and is therefore used for DNA fragments of usually 50--20,000 bp in size. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb, but resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large proteins, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5--10 nm. A 0.9% agarose gel has pores large enough for the entry of bacteriophage T4.
The agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulfate. These negatively charged groups create a flow of water in the opposite direction to the movement of DNA in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO), and can therefore retard the movement of DNA and cause blurring of bands. Higher concentration gels would have higher electroendosmotic flow. Low EEO agarose is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids, but high EEO agarose may be used for other purposes. The lower sulfate content of low EEO agarose, particularly low-melting point (LMP) agarose, is also beneficial in cases where the DNA extracted from gel is to be used for further manipulation as the presence of contaminating sulfates may affect some subsequent procedures, such as ligation and PCR. Zero EEO agaroses however are undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups and such groups can affect subsequent enzyme reactions. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used in preference to agar as the agaropectin component in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulfate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum proteins, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.
## Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel {#migration_of_nucleic_acids_in_agarose_gel}
### Factors affecting migration of nucleic acid in gel {#factors_affecting_migration_of_nucleic_acid_in_gel}
A number of factors can affect the migration of nucleic acids: the dimension of the gel pores (gel concentration), size of DNA being electrophoresed, the voltage used, the ionic strength of the buffer, and the concentration of intercalating dye such as ethidium bromide if used during electrophoresis.
Smaller molecules travel faster than larger molecules in gel, and double-stranded DNA moves at a rate that is inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of base pairs. This relationship however breaks down with very large DNA fragments, and separation of very large DNA fragments requires the use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), which applies alternating current from different directions and the large DNA fragments are separated as they reorient themselves with the changing field.
For standard agarose gel electrophoresis, larger molecules are resolved better using a low concentration gel while smaller molecules separate better at high concentration gel. Higher concentration gels, however, require longer run times (sometimes days).
The movement of the DNA may be affected by the conformation of the DNA molecule, for example, supercoiled DNA usually moves faster than relaxed DNA because it is tightly coiled and hence more compact. In a normal plasmid DNA preparation, multiple forms of DNA may be present. Gel electrophoresis of the plasmids would normally show the negatively supercoiled form as the main band, while nicked DNA (open circular form) and the relaxed closed circular form appears as minor bands. The rate at which the various forms move however can change using different electrophoresis conditions, and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel.
Ethidium bromide which intercalates into circular DNA can change the charge, length, as well as the superhelicity of the DNA molecule, therefore its presence in gel during electrophoresis can affect its movement. For example, the positive charge of ethidium bromide can reduce the DNA movement by 15%. Agarose gel electrophoresis can be used to resolve circular DNA with different supercoiling topology.
DNA damage due to increased cross-linking will also reduce electrophoretic DNA migration in a dose-dependent way.
The rate of migration of the DNA is proportional to the voltage applied, i.e. the higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. The resolution of large DNA fragments however is lower at high voltage. The mobility of DNA may also change in an unsteady field -- in a field that is periodically reversed, the mobility of DNA of a particular size may drop significantly at a particular cycling frequency. This phenomenon can result in band inversion in field inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE), whereby larger DNA fragments move faster than smaller ones.
### Migration anomalies {#migration_anomalies}
- \"Smiley\" gels - this edge effect is caused when the voltage applied is too high for the gel concentration used.
- Overloading of DNA - overloading of DNA slows down the migration of DNA fragments.
- Contamination - presence of impurities, such as salts or proteins can affect the movement of the DNA.
### Mechanism of migration and separation {#mechanism_of_migration_and_separation}
The negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis. The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, and a number of models exist to explain the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix. A widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve. A globular protein or a random coil DNA moves through the interconnected pores, and the movement of larger molecules is more likely to be impeded and slowed down by collisions with the gel matrix, and the molecules of different sizes can therefore be separated in this sieving process.
The Ogston model however breaks down for large molecules whereby the pores are significantly smaller than size of the molecule. For DNA molecules of size greater than 1 kb, a reptation model (or its variants) is most commonly used. This model assumes that the DNA can crawl in a \"snake-like\" fashion (hence \"reptation\") through the pores as an elongated molecule. A biased reptation model applies at higher electric field strength, whereby the leading end of the molecule become strongly biased in the forward direction and pulls the rest of the molecule along. Real-time fluorescence microscopy of stained molecules, however, showed more subtle dynamics during electrophoresis, with the DNA showing considerable elasticity as it alternately stretching in the direction of the applied field and then contracting into a ball, or becoming hooked into a U-shape when it gets caught on the polymer fibres.
## General procedure {#general_procedure}
The details of an agarose gel electrophoresis experiment may vary depending on methods, but most follow a general procedure.
### Casting of gel {#casting_of_gel}
The gel is prepared by dissolving the agarose powder in an appropriate buffer, such as TAE or TBE, to be used in electrophoresis. The agarose is dispersed in the buffer before heating it to near-boiling point, but avoid boiling. The melted agarose is allowed to cool sufficiently before pouring the solution into a cast as the cast may warp or crack if the agarose solution is too hot. A comb is placed in the cast to create wells for loading sample, and the gel should be completely set before use.
The concentration of gel affects the resolution of DNA separation. The agarose gel is composed of microscopic pores through which the molecules travel, and there is an inverse relationship between the pore size of the agarose gel and the concentration -- pore size decreases as the density of agarose fibers increases. High gel concentration improves separation of smaller DNA molecules, while lowering gel concentration permits large DNA molecules to be separated. The process allows fragments ranging from 50 base pairs to several mega bases to be separated depending on the gel concentration used. The concentration is measured in weight of agarose over volume of buffer used (g/ml). For a standard agarose gel electrophoresis, a 0.8% gel gives good separation or resolution of large 5--10kb DNA fragments, while 2% gel gives good resolution for small 0.2--1kb fragments. 1% gels is often used for a standard electrophoresis. High percentage gels are often brittle and may not set evenly, while low percentage gels (0.1-0.2%) are fragile and not easy to handle. Low-melting-point (LMP) agarose gels are also more fragile than normal agarose gel. Low-melting point agarose may be used on its own or simultaneously with standard agarose for the separation and isolation of DNA. PFGE and FIGE are often done with high percentage agarose gels.
### Loading of samples {#loading_of_samples}
Once the gel has set, the comb is removed, leaving wells where DNA samples can be loaded. Loading buffer is mixed with the DNA sample before the mixture is loaded into the wells. The loading buffer contains a dense compound, which may be glycerol, sucrose, or Ficoll, that raises the density of the sample so that the DNA sample may sink to the bottom of the well. If the DNA sample contains residual ethanol after its preparation, it may float out of the well. The loading buffer also includes colored dyes such as xylene cyanol and bromophenol blue used to monitor the progress of the electrophoresis. The DNA samples are loaded using a pipette.
### Electrophoresis
Agarose gel electrophoresis is most commonly done horizontally in a subaquaeous mode whereby the slab gel is completely submerged in buffer during electrophoresis. It is also possible, but less common, to perform the electrophoresis vertically, as well as horizontally with the gel raised on agarose legs using an appropriate apparatus. The buffer used in the gel is the same as the running buffer in the electrophoresis tank, which is why electrophoresis in the subaquaeous mode is possible with agarose gel.
For optimal resolution of DNA greater than 2`{{Spaces}}`{=mediawiki}kb in size in standard gel electrophoresis, 5 to 8 V/cm is recommended (the distance in cm refers to the distance between electrodes, therefore this recommended voltage would be 5 to 8 multiplied by the distance between the electrodes in cm). Voltage may also be limited by the fact that it heats the gel and may cause the gel to melt if it is run at high voltage for a prolonged period, especially if the gel used is LMP agarose gel. Too high a voltage may also reduce resolution, as well as causing band streaking for large DNA molecules. Too low a voltage may lead to broadening of band for small DNA fragments due to dispersion and diffusion.
Since DNA is not visible in natural light, the progress of the electrophoresis is monitored using colored dyes. Xylene cyanol (light blue color) comigrates large DNA fragments, while Bromophenol blue (dark blue) comigrates with the smaller fragments. Less commonly used dyes include Cresol Red and Orange G which migrate ahead of bromophenol blue. A DNA marker is also run together for the estimation of the molecular weight of the DNA fragments. Note however that the size of a circular DNA like plasmids cannot be accurately gauged using standard markers unless it has been linearized by restriction digest, alternatively a supercoiled DNA marker may be used.
### Staining and visualization {#staining_and_visualization}
DNA as well as RNA are normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide, which intercalates into the major grooves of the DNA and fluoresces under UV light. The intercalation depends on the concentration of DNA and thus, a band with high intensity will indicate a higher amount of DNA compared to a band of less intensity. The ethidium bromide may be added to the agarose solution before it gels, or the DNA gel may be stained later after electrophoresis. Destaining of the gel is not necessary but may produce better images. Other methods of staining are available; examples are MIDORI Green, SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, brilliant cresyl blue, Nile blue sulfate, and crystal violet. SYBR Green, GelRed and other similar commercial products are sold as safer alternatives to ethidium bromide as it has been shown to be mutagenic in Ames test, although the carcinogenicity of ethidium bromide has not actually been established. SYBR Green requires the use of a blue-light transilluminator. DNA stained with crystal violet can be viewed under natural light without the use of a UV transilluminator which is an advantage, however it may not produce a strong band.
When stained with ethidium bromide, the gel is viewed with an ultraviolet (UV) transilluminator. The UV light excites the electrons within the aromatic ring of ethidium bromide, and once they return to the ground state, light is released, making the DNA and ethidium bromide complex fluoresce. Standard transilluminators use wavelengths of 302/312-nm (UV-B), however exposure of DNA to UV radiation for as little as 45 seconds can produce damage to DNA and affect subsequent procedures, for example reducing the efficiency of transformation, *in vitro* transcription, and PCR. Exposure of DNA to UV radiation therefore should be limited. Using a higher wavelength of 365 nm (UV-A range) causes less damage to the DNA but also produces much weaker fluorescence with ethidium bromide. Where multiple wavelengths can be selected in the transilluminator, shorter wavelength can be used to capture images, while longer wavelength should be used if it is necessary to work on the gel for any extended period of time.
The transilluminator apparatus may also contain image capture devices, such as a digital or polaroid camera, that allow an image of the gel to be taken or printed.
For gel electrophoresis of protein, the bands may be visualised with Coomassie or silver stains.
### Downstream procedures {#downstream_procedures}
The separated DNA bands are often used for further procedures, and a DNA band may be cut out of the gel as a slice, dissolved and purified. Contaminants however may affect some downstream procedures such as PCR, and low melting point agarose may be preferred in some cases as it contains fewer of the sulfates that can affect some enzymatic reactions. The gels may also be used for blotting techniques.
## Buffers
In general, the ideal buffer should have good conductivity, produce less heat and have a long life. There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis; common ones for nucleic acids include tris/acetate/EDTA (TAE) and tris/borate/EDTA (TBE). The buffers used contain EDTA to inactivate many nucleases which require divalent cation for their function. The borate in TBE buffer can be problematic as borate can polymerize, and/or interact with cis diols such as those found in RNA. TAE has the lowest buffering capacity, but it provides the best resolution for larger DNA. This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product.
Many other buffers have been proposed, e.g. lithium borate (LB), iso electric histidine, pK matched goods buffers, etc.; in most cases the purported rationale is lower current (less heat) and or matched ion mobilities, which leads to longer buffer life. Tris-phosphate buffer has high buffering capacity but cannot be used if DNA extracted is to be used in phosphate sensitive reaction. LB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5 kbp; However, with its low conductivity, a much higher voltage could be used (up to 35 V/cm), which means a shorter analysis time for routine electrophoresis. As low as one base pair size difference could be resolved in 3% agarose gel with an extremely low conductivity medium (1 mM lithium borate).
Other buffering system may be used in specific applications, for example, barbituric acid-sodium barbiturate or tris-barbiturate buffers may be used for in agarose gel electrophoresis of proteins, for example in the detection of abnormal distribution of proteins.
## Applications
- Estimation of the size of DNA molecules following digestion with restriction enzymes, e.g., in restriction mapping of cloned DNA.
- Estimation of the DNA concentration by comparing the intensity of the nucleic acid band with the corresponding band of the size marker.
- Analysis of products of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), e.g., in molecular genetic diagnosis or genetic fingerprinting
- Separation of DNA fragments for extraction and purification.
- Separation of restricted genomic DNA prior to Southern transfer, or of RNA prior to Northern transfer.
- Separation of proteins, for example, screening of protein abnormalities in clinical chemistry.
Agarose gels are easily cast and handled compared to other matrices and nucleic acids are not chemically altered during electrophoresis. Samples are also easily recovered. After the experiment is finished, the resulting gel can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator.
Electrophoresis is performed in buffer solutions to reduce pH changes due to the electric field, which is important because the charge of DNA and RNA depends on pH, but running for too long can exhaust the buffering capacity of the solution. Further, different preparations of genetic material may not migrate consistently with each other, for morphological or other reasons.
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1,912 |
Ampicillin
|
\| width2 = 180 \| alt2 =
\| pronounce = \| tradename = Principen, others \| Drugs.com = `{{drugs.com|monograph|ampicillin}}`{=mediawiki} \| MedlinePlus = a685002 \| DailyMedID = Ampicillin \| pregnancy_AU = A \| pregnancy_AU_comment = \| pregnancy_category = \| routes_of_administration = By mouth, intravenous, intramuscular \| class = Aminopenicillins \| ATC_prefix = J01 \| ATC_suffix = CA01 \| ATC_supplemental = `{{ATC|S01|AA19}}`{=mediawiki} `{{ATCvet|J51|CA01}}`{=mediawiki} `{{ATC|J01|CR50}}`{=mediawiki} `{{ATC|J01|CA51}}`{=mediawiki}
\| legal_AU = S4 \| legal_AU_comment = \| legal_BR = \| legal_BR_comment = \| legal_CA = Rx-only \| legal_CA_comment = \| legal_DE = \| legal_DE_comment = \| legal_NZ = \| legal_NZ_comment = \| legal_UK = POM \| legal_UK_comment = \| legal_US = Rx-only \| legal_US_comment = \| legal_UN = \| legal_UN_comment = \| legal_status =
\| bioavailability = 62% ±17% (parenteral)\
\< 30--55% (oral) \| protein_bound = 15 to 25% \| metabolism = 12 to 50% \| metabolites = Penicilloic acid \| onset = \| elimination_half-life = Approx. 1 hour \| duration_of_action = \| excretion = 75 to 85% kidney
\| CAS_number_Ref = `{{cascite|correct|??}}`{=mediawiki} \| CAS_number = 69-53-4 \| CAS_supplemental = \| PubChem = 6249 \| IUPHAR_ligand = \| DrugBank_Ref = `{{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}`{=mediawiki} \| DrugBank = DB00415 \| ChemSpiderID_Ref = `{{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}`{=mediawiki} \| ChemSpiderID = 6013 \| UNII_Ref = `{{fdacite|correct|FDA}}`{=mediawiki} \| UNII = 7C782967RD \| KEGG_Ref = `{{keggcite|correct|kegg}}`{=mediawiki} \| KEGG = D00204 \| KEGG2_Ref = `{{keggcite|correct|kegg}}`{=mediawiki} \| KEGG2 = C06574 \| ChEBI_Ref = `{{ebicite|correct|EBI}}`{=mediawiki} \| ChEBI = 28971 \| ChEMBL_Ref = `{{ebicite|correct|EBI}}`{=mediawiki} \| ChEMBL = 174 \| NIAID_ChemDB = \| PDB_ligand = AIC \| synonyms = AM/AMP
\| IUPAC_name = (2*S*,5*R*,6*R*)-6-(\[(2*R*)-2-Amino-2-phenylacetyl\]amino)-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-azabicyclo\[3.2.0\]heptane-2-carboxylic acid \| C = 16 \| H = 19 \| N = 3 \| O = 4 \| S = 1 \| SMILES = CC1(C(N2C(S1)C(C2=O)NC(=O)C(C3=CC=CC=C3)N)C(=O)O)C \| StdInChI_Ref = `{{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}`{=mediawiki} \| StdInChI = 1S/C16H19N3O4S/c1-16(2)11(15(22)23)19-13(21)10(14(19)24-16)18-12(20)9(17)8-6-4-3-5-7-8/h3-7,9-11,14H,17H2,1-2H3,(H,18,20)(H,22,23)/t9-,10-,11+,14-/m1/s1 \| StdInChI_comment = \| StdInChIKey_Ref = `{{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}`{=mediawiki} \| StdInChIKey = AVKUERGKIZMTKX-NJBDSQKTSA-N \| density = \| density_notes = \| melting_point = \| melting_high = \| melting_notes = \| boiling_point = \| boiling_notes = \| solubility = \| sol_units = \| specific_rotation = }}
**Ampicillin** is an antibiotic belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to prevent and treat several bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococcal infection in newborns. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or intravenously.
Common side effects include rash, nausea, and diarrhea. It should not be used in people who are allergic to penicillin. Serious side effects may include *Clostridioides difficile* colitis or anaphylaxis. While usable in those with kidney problems, the dose may need to be decreased. Its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding appears to be generally safe.
Ampicillin was discovered in 1958 and came into commercial use in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization\'s List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies ampicillin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication.
## Medical uses {#medical_uses}
### Diseases
- Bacterial meningitis; an aminoglycoside can be added to increase efficacy against gram-negative meningitis bacteria
- Endocarditis by enterococcal strains (off-label use); often given with an aminoglycoside
- Gastrointestinal infections caused by contaminated water or food (for example, by *Salmonella*)
- Genito-urinary tract infections
- Healthcare-associated infections that are related to infections from using urinary catheters and that are unresponsive to other medications
- Otitis media (middle ear infection)
- Prophylaxis (i.e. to prevent infection) in those who previously had rheumatic heart disease or are undergoing dental procedures, vaginal hysterectomies, or C-sections. It is also used in pregnant woman who are carriers of group B streptococci to prevent early-onset neonatal infections.
- Respiratory infections, including bronchitis, pharyngitis
- Sinusitis
- Sepsis
- Whooping cough, to prevent and treat secondary infections
Ampicillin used to also be used to treat gonorrhea, but there are now too many strains resistant to penicillins.
### Bacteria
Ampicillin is used to treat infections by many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. It was the first \"broad spectrum\" penicillin with activity against gram-positive bacteria, including *Streptococcus pneumoniae*, *Streptococcus pyogenes*, some isolates of *Staphylococcus aureus* (but not penicillin-resistant or methicillin-resistant strains), *Trueperella*, and some *Enterococcus*. It is one of the few antibiotics that works against multidrug resistant *Enterococcus faecalis* and *E. faecium*. Activity against gram-negative bacteria includes *Neisseria meningitidis*, some *Haemophilus influenzae*, and some of the Enterobacteriaceae (though most Enterobacteriaceae and *Pseudomonas* are resistant). Its spectrum of activity is enhanced by co-administration of sulbactam, a drug that inhibits beta lactamase, an enzyme produced by bacteria to inactivate ampicillin and related antibiotics. It is sometimes used in combination with other antibiotics that have different mechanisms of action, like vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, and tigecycline.
### Available forms {#available_forms}
Ampicillin can be administered by mouth, an intramuscular injection (shot) or by intravenous infusion. The oral form, available as capsules or oral suspensions, is not given as an initial treatment for severe infections, but rather as a follow-up to an IM or IV injection. For IV and IM injections, ampicillin is kept as a powder that must be reconstituted.
IV injections must be given slowly, as rapid IV injections can lead to convulsive seizures.
### Specific populations {#specific_populations}
Ampicillin is one of the most used drugs in pregnancy, and has been found to be generally harmless both by the Food and Drug Administration in the U.S. (which classified it as category B) and the Therapeutic Goods Administration in Australia (which classified it as category A). It is the drug of choice for treating *Listeria monocytogenes* in pregnant women, either alone or combined with an aminoglycoside. Pregnancy increases the clearance of ampicillin by up to 50%, and a higher dose is thus needed to reach therapeutic levels.
Ampicillin crosses the placenta and remains in the amniotic fluid at 50--100% of the concentration in maternal plasma; this can lead to high concentrations of ampicillin in the newborn.
While lactating mothers secrete some ampicillin into their breast milk, the amount is minimal.
In newborns, ampicillin has a longer half-life and lower plasma protein binding. The clearance by the kidneys is lower, as kidney function has not fully developed.
## Contraindications
Ampicillin is contraindicated in those with a hypersensitivity to penicillins, as they can cause fatal anaphylactic reactions. Hypersensitivity reactions can include frequent skin rashes and hives, exfoliative dermatitis, erythema multiforme, and a temporary decrease in both red and white blood cells.
Ampicillin is not recommended in people with concurrent mononucleosis, as over 40% of patients develop a skin rash.
## Side effects {#side_effects}
Ampicillin is comparatively less toxic than other antibiotics, and side effects are more likely in those who are sensitive to penicillins and those with a history of asthma or allergies. In very rare cases, it causes severe side effects such as angioedema, anaphylaxis, and *C. difficile* infection (that can range from mild diarrhea to serious pseudomembranous colitis). Some develop black \"furry\" tongue. Serious adverse effects also include seizures and serum sickness. The most common side effects, experienced by about 10% of users are diarrhea and rash. Less common side effects can be nausea, vomiting, itching, and blood dyscrasias. The gastrointestinal effects, such as hairy tongue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and colitis, are more common with the oral form of penicillin. Other conditions may develop up several weeks after treatment.
### Overdose
Ampicillin overdose can cause behavioral changes, confusion, blackouts, and convulsions, as well as neuromuscular hypersensitivity, electrolyte imbalance, and kidney failure.
## Interactions
Ampicillin reacts with probenecid and methotrexate to decrease renal excretion. Large doses of ampicillin can increase the risk of bleeding with concurrent use of warfarin and other oral anticoagulants, possibly by inhibiting platelet aggregation. Ampicillin has been said to make oral contraceptives less effective, but this has been disputed. It can be made less effective by other antibiotic, such as chloramphenicol, erythromycin, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines. For example, tetracyclines inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria, reducing the target against which ampicillin acts. If given at the same time as aminoglycosides, it can bind to it and inactivate it. When administered separately, aminoglycosides and ampicillin can potentiate each other instead.
Ampicillin causes skin rashes more often when given with allopurinol.
Both the live cholera vaccine and live typhoid vaccine can be made ineffective if given with ampicillin. Ampicillin is normally used to treat cholera and typhoid fever, lowering the immunological response that the body has to mount.
## Pharmacology
### Mechanism of action {#mechanism_of_action}
Ampicillin is in the penicillin group of beta-lactam antibiotics and is part of the aminopenicillin family. It is roughly equivalent to amoxicillin in terms of activity. Ampicillin is able to penetrate gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. It differs from penicillin G, or benzylpenicillin, only by the presence of an amino group. This amino group, present on both ampicillin and amoxicillin, helps these antibiotics pass through the pores of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, such as *Escherichia coli*, *Proteus mirabilis*, *Salmonella enterica*, and *Shigella*.
Ampicillin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme transpeptidase, which is needed by bacteria to make the cell wall. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis in binary fission, which ultimately leads to cell lysis; therefore, ampicillin is usually bacteriolytic.
### Pharmacokinetics
Ampicillin is well-absorbed from the GI tract (though food reduces its absorption), and reaches peak concentrations in one to two hours. The bioavailability is around 62% for parenteral routes. Unlike other penicillins, which usually bind 60--90% to plasma proteins, ampicillin binds to only 15--20%.
Ampicillin is distributed through most tissues, though it is concentrated in the liver and kidneys. It can also be found in the cerebrospinal fluid when the meninges become inflamed (such as, for example, meningitis). Some ampicillin is metabolized by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring to penicilloic acid, though most of it is excreted unchanged. In the kidneys, it is filtered out mostly by tubular secretion; some also undergoes glomerular filtration, and the rest is excreted in the feces and bile.
Hetacillin and pivampicillin are ampicillin esters that have been developed to increase bioavailability.
## History
Ampicillin has been used extensively to treat bacterial infections since 1961. Until the introduction of ampicillin by the British company Beecham, penicillin therapies had only been effective against gram-positive organisms such as staphylococci and streptococci. Ampicillin (originally branded as \"Penbritin\") also demonstrated activity against gram-negative organisms such as *H. influenzae*, coliforms, and *Proteus* spp.
## Society and culture {#society_and_culture}
### Economics
Ampicillin is relatively inexpensive. In the United States, it is available as a generic medication.
## Veterinary use {#veterinary_use}
In veterinary medicine, ampicillin is used in cats, dogs, and farm animals to treat:
- Anal gland infections
- Cutaneous infections, such as abscesses, cellulitis, and pustular dermatitis
- *E. coli* and *Salmonella* infections in cattle, sheep, and goats (oral form). Ampicillin use for this purpose had declined as bacterial resistance has increased.
- Mastitis in sows
- Mixed aerobic--anaerobic infections, such as from cat bites
- Multidrug-resistant *Enterococcus faecalis* and *E. faecium*
- Prophylactic use in poultry against *Salmonella* and sepsis from *E. coli* or *Staphylococcus aureus*
- Respiratory tract infections, including tonsilitis, bovine respiratory disease, shipping fever, bronchopneumonia, and calf and bovine pneumonia
- Urinary tract infections in dogs
Horses are generally not treated with oral ampicillin, as they have low bioavailability of beta-lactams.
The half-life in animals is around that same of that in humans (just over an hour). Oral absorption is less than 50% in cats and dogs, and less than 4% in horses.
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Antigen
|
In immunology, an **antigen** (**Ag**) is a molecule, moiety, foreign particulate matter, or an allergen, such as pollen, that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response.
Antigens can be proteins, peptides (amino acid chains), polysaccharides (chains of simple sugars), lipids, or nucleic acids. Antigens exist on normal cells, cancer cells, parasites, viruses, fungi, and bacteria.
Antigens are recognized by antigen receptors, including antibodies and T-cell receptors. Diverse antigen receptors are made by cells of the immune system so that each cell has a specificity for a single antigen. Upon exposure to an antigen, only the lymphocytes that recognize that antigen are activated and expanded, a process known as clonal selection. In most cases, antibodies are *antigen-specific*, meaning that an antibody can only react to and bind one specific antigen; in some instances, however, antibodies may cross-react to bind more than one antigen. The reaction between an antigen and an antibody is called the antigen-antibody reaction.
Antigen can originate either from within the body (\"self-protein\" or \"self antigens\") or from the external environment (\"non-self\"). The immune system identifies and attacks \"non-self\" external antigens. Antibodies usually do not react with self-antigens due to negative selection of T cells in the thymus and B cells in the bone marrow. The diseases in which antibodies react with self antigens and damage the body\'s own cells are called autoimmune diseases.
Vaccines are examples of antigens in an immunogenic form, which are intentionally administered to a recipient to induce the memory function of the adaptive immune system towards antigens of the pathogen invading that recipient. The vaccine for seasonal influenza is a common example.
## Etymology
Paul Ehrlich coined the term *antibody* (*Antikörper*) in his side-chain theory at the end of the 19th century. In 1899, Ladislas Deutsch (László Detre) named the hypothetical substances halfway between bacterial constituents and antibodies \"antigenic or immunogenic substances\" (*substances immunogènes ou antigènes*). He originally believed those substances to be precursors of antibodies, just as a zymogen is a precursor of an enzyme. But, by 1903, he understood that an antigen induces the production of immune bodies (antibodies) and wrote that the word *antigen* is a contraction of antisomatogen (*Immunkörperbildner*). The *Oxford English Dictionary* indicates that the logical construction should be \"anti(body)-gen\". The term originally referred to a substance that acts as an antibody generator.
## Terminology
- Epitope -- the distinct surface features of an, its *antigenic determinant*.\
Antigenic molecules, normally \"large\" biological polymers, usually present surface features that can act as points of interaction for specific antibodies. Any such feature constitutes an epitope. Most antigens have the potential to be bound by multiple antibodies, each of which is specific to one of the antigen\'s epitopes. Using the \"lock and key\" metaphor, the antigen can be seen as a string of keys (epitopes) each of which matches a different lock (antibody). Different antibody idiotypes, each have distinctly formed complementarity-determining regions.
- Allergen -- A substance capable of causing an allergic reaction. The (detrimental) reaction may result after exposure via ingestion, inhalation, injection, or contact with skin.
- Superantigen -- A class of antigens that cause non-specific activation of T-cells, resulting in polyclonal T-cell activation and massive cytokine release.
- Tolerogen -- A substance that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its molecular form. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen.
- Immunoglobulin-binding protein -- Proteins such as protein A, protein G, and protein L that are capable of binding to antibodies at positions outside of the antigen-binding site. While antigens are the \"target\" of antibodies, immunoglobulin-binding proteins \"attack\" antibodies.
- T-dependent antigen -- Antigens that require the assistance of T cells to induce the formation of specific antibodies.
- T-independent antigen -- Antigens that stimulate B cells directly.
- Immunodominant antigens -- Antigens that dominate (over all others from a pathogen) in their ability to produce an immune response. T cell responses typically are directed against a relatively few immunodominant epitopes, although in some cases (e.g., infection with the malaria pathogen *Plasmodium spp.*) it is dispersed over a relatively large number of parasite antigens.
Antigen-presenting cells present antigens in the form of peptides on histocompatibility molecules. The T cells selectively recognize the antigens; depending on the antigen and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, different types of T cells will be activated. For T-cell receptor (TCR) recognition, the peptide must be processed into small fragments inside the cell and presented by a major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The antigen cannot elicit the immune response without the help of an immunologic adjuvant. Similarly, the adjuvant component of vaccines plays an essential role in the activation of the innate immune system.
An immunogen is an antigen substance (or adduct) that is able to trigger a humoral (innate) or cell-mediated immune response. It first initiates an innate immune response, which then causes the activation of the adaptive immune response. An antigen binds the highly variable immunoreceptor products (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) once these have been generated. Immunogens are those antigens, termed immunogenic, capable of inducing an immune response.
At the molecular level, an antigen can be characterized by its ability to bind to an antibody\'s paratopes. Different antibodies have the potential to discriminate among specific epitopes present on the antigen surface. A hapten is a small molecule that can only induce an immune response when attached to a larger carrier molecule, such as a protein. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids or other biomolecules. This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbriae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Non-microbial non-self antigens can include pollen, egg white, and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells.
## Antigenic specificity {#antigenic_specificity}
Antigenic specificity is the ability of the host cells to recognize an antigen specifically as a unique molecular entity and distinguish it from another with exquisite precision. Antigen specificity is due primarily to the side-chain conformations of the antigen. It is measurable and need not be linear or of a rate-limited step or equation. Both T cells and B cells are cellular components of adaptive immunity.
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Aeon
|
The word **aeon** `{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|ɒ|n}}`{=mediawiki}, also spelled **eon** (in American and Australian English), originally meant \"life\", \"vital force\" or \"being\", \"generation\" or \"a period of time\", though it tended to be translated as \"age\" in the sense of \"ages\", \"forever\", \"timeless\" or \"for eternity\". It is a Latin transliteration from the ancient Greek word *ὁ αἰών* (**ho aion**), from the archaic *αἰϝών* (**aiwōn**) meaning \"century\". In Greek, it literally refers to the timespan of one hundred years. A cognate Latin word **aevum** (cf. *αἰϝών*) for \"age\" is present in words such as *eternal*, *longevity* and *mediaeval*.
Although the term aeon may be used in reference to a period of a billion years (especially in geology, cosmology and astronomy), its more common usage is for any long, indefinite period. Aeon can also refer to the four aeons on the geologic time scale that make up the Earth\'s history, the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and the current aeon, Phanerozoic.
## Astronomy and cosmology {#astronomy_and_cosmology}
In astronomy, an aeon is defined as a billion years (10^9^ years, abbreviated AE).
Roger Penrose uses the word *aeon* to describe the period between successive and cyclic Big Bangs within the context of conformal cyclic cosmology.
## Philosophy and mysticism {#philosophy_and_mysticism}
In Buddhism, aeon may be used as a translation of the term kalpa or **mahakalpa** (Sanskrit: *italic=no*). A mahakalpa is often said to be 1,334,240,000 years, the life cycle of the world. Yet, these numbers are symbolic, not literal.
Christianity\'s idea of \"eternal life\" comes from the word for life, **zōḗ** (*italic=no*), and a form of **aión** (*italic=no*), which could mean life in the next aeon, the Kingdom of God, or Heaven, just as much as immortality, as in John 3:16.`{{lopsided|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
According to Christian universalism, the Greek New Testament scriptures use the word **aión** (*italic=no*) to mean a long period and the word **aiṓnion** (*αἰώνιον*) to mean \"during a long period\"; thus, there was a time before the aeons, and the aeonian period is finite. After each person\'s mortal life ends, they are judged worthy of aeonian life or aeonian punishment. That is, after the period of the aeons, all punishment will cease and death is overcome and then God becomes the all in each one (1Cor 15:28). This contrasts with the conventional Christian belief in eternal life and eternal punishment.
Occultists of the Thelema and Ordo Templi Orientis (English: \"Order of the Temple of the East\") traditions sometimes speak of a \"magical Aeon\" that may last for perhaps as little as 2,000 years.
### Gnosticism
In many Gnostic systems, the various emanations of God, who is also known by such names as the *One*, the *Monad*, *Aion teleos* (\"The Broadest Aeon\", Greek: *αἰών τέλεος*), *Bythos* (\"depth or profundity\", Greek: *βυθός*), *Proarkhe* (\"before the beginning\", Greek: *προαρχή*), **Arkhe** (\"the beginning\", Greek: *ἀρχή*), **Sophia** (\"wisdom\"), and **Christos** (\"the Anointed One\"), are called *Aeons*. In the different systems these emanations are differently named, classified, and described, but the emanation theory itself is common to all forms of Gnosticism.
In the Basilidian Gnosis they are called sonships (*υἱότητες* **huiotetes**; singular: *υἱότης* **huiotes**); according to Marcus, they are numbers and sounds; in Valentinianism they form male/female pairs called \"*syzygies*\" (Greek *συζυγίαι*, from *σύζυγοι* **syzygoi**).
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Andreas Capellanus
|
**Andreas Capellanus** (*Capellanus* meaning \"chaplain\"), also known as **Andrew the Chaplain** (`{{fl.|{{circa}} 1185}}`{=mediawiki}), and occasionally by a French translation of his name, **André le Chapelain**, was the 12th-century author of a treatise commonly known as *De amore* (\"About Love\"), and often known in English, somewhat misleadingly, as *The Art of Courtly Love*, though its realistic, somewhat cynical tone suggests that it is in some measure an antidote to courtly love. Little is known of Andreas Capellanus\'s life, but he is presumed to have been a courtier of Marie de Champagne, and probably of French origin.
## His work {#his_work}
*De Amore* was written at the request of Marie de Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine. In it, the author informs a young pupil, Walter, of the pitfalls of love. A dismissive allusion in the text to the \"wealth of Hungary\" has suggested the hypothesis that it was written after 1184, at the time when Bela III of Hungary had sent to the French court a statement of his income and had proposed marriage to Marie\'s half-sister Marguerite of France, but before 1186, when his proposal was accepted.
*De Amore* is made up of three books. The first book covers the etymology and definition of love and is written in the manner of an academic lecture. The second book consists of sample dialogues between members of different social classes; it outlines how the romantic process between the classes should work. This second work is largely considered to be an inferior to the first. Book three is made of stories from actual courts of love presided over by noble women.
John Jay Parry, the editor of one modern edition of *De Amore*, quotes critic Robert Bossuat as describing *De Amore* as \"one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization\". It may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive; in any event it preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in Western literature.
The social system of \"courtly love\", as gradually elaborated by the Provençal troubadours from the mid twelfth century, soon spread. One of the circles in which this poetry and its ethic were cultivated was the court of Eleanor of Aquitaine (herself the granddaughter of an early troubadour poet, William IX of Aquitaine). *De Amore* codifies the social and love life of Eleanor\'s court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174, though it was evidently written at least ten years later and, apparently, at Troyes. It deals with several specific themes that were the subject of poetical debate among late twelfth century troubadours and trobairitz.
The meaning of *De Amore* has been debated over the centuries. In the years immediately following its release many people took Andreas\' opinions concerning Courtly Love seriously. In more recent times, however, scholars have come to view the priest\'s work as satirical. Many scholars now agree that Andreas was commenting on the materialistic, superficial nature of medieval nobles. Andreas seems to have been warning young Walter, his protégé, about love in the Middle Ages.
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Apollo 12
|
**Apollo 12** (November 14--24, 1969) was the sixth crewed flight in the United States Apollo program and the second to land on the Moon. It was launched on November 14, 1969, by NASA from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Commander Charles \"Pete\" Conrad and Lunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean completed just over one day and seven hours of lunar surface activity while Command Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon remained in lunar orbit.
Apollo 12 would have attempted the first lunar landing had Apollo 11 failed, but after the success of the earlier mission, Apollo 12 was postponed by two months, and other Apollo missions also put on a more relaxed schedule. More time was allotted for geologic training in preparation for Apollo 12 than for Apollo 11, Conrad and Bean making several geology field trips in preparation for their mission. Apollo 12\'s spacecraft and launch vehicle were almost identical to Apollo 11\'s. One addition was a set of hammocks, designed to provide Conrad and Bean with a more comfortable resting arrangement inside the Lunar Module during their stay on the Moon.
Shortly after being launched on a rainy day at Kennedy Space Center, Apollo 12 was twice struck by lightning, causing instrumentation problems but little damage. The crew found that switching to the auxiliary power supply resolved the data relay problem, which helped save the mission. The outward journey to the Moon otherwise saw few problems. On November 19, Conrad and Bean achieved a precise landing at their expected location within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 robotic probe, which had landed on April 20, 1967. In making a pinpoint landing, they showed that NASA could plan future missions in the expectation that astronauts could land close to sites of scientific interest. Conrad and Bean carried the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package, a group of nuclear-powered scientific instruments, as well as the first color television camera taken by an Apollo mission to the lunar surface, but transmission was lost after Bean accidentally pointed the camera at the Sun and its sensor was burned out. On the second of two moonwalks, they visited Surveyor 3 and removed parts for return to Earth.
Lunar Module *Intrepid* lifted off from the Moon on November 20 and docked with the command module, which subsequently traveled back to Earth. The Apollo 12 mission ended on November 24 with a splashdown.
## Crew and key Mission Control personnel {#crew_and_key_mission_control_personnel}
The commander of the all-Navy Apollo 12 crew was Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, who was 39 years old at the time of the mission. After receiving a bachelor\'s degree in aeronautical engineering from Princeton University in 1953, he became a naval aviator, and completed United States Naval Test Pilot School at Patuxent River Naval Air Station. He was selected in the second group of astronauts in 1962, and flew on Gemini 5 in 1965, and as command pilot of Gemini 11 in 1966. Command Module Pilot Richard \"Dick\" Gordon, 40 years old at the time of Apollo 12, also became a naval aviator in 1953, following graduation from the University of Washington with a degree in chemistry, and completed test pilot school at Patuxent River. Selected as a Group 3 astronaut in 1963, he flew with Conrad on Gemini 11.
The original Lunar Module pilot assigned to work with Conrad was Clifton C. Williams Jr., who was killed in October 1967 when the T-38 he was flying crashed near Tallahassee. When forming his crew, Conrad had wanted Alan L. Bean, a former student of his at the test pilot school, but had been told by Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton that Bean was unavailable due to an assignment to the Apollo Applications Program. After Williams\'s death, Conrad asked for Bean again, and this time Slayton yielded. Bean, 37 years old when the mission flew, had graduated from the University of Texas in 1955 with a degree in aeronautical engineering. Also a naval aviator, he was selected alongside Gordon in 1963, and first flew in space on Apollo 12. The three Apollo 12 crew members had backed up Apollo 9 earlier in 1969.
The Apollo 12 backup crew was David R. Scott as commander, Alfred M. Worden as Command Module pilot, and James B. Irwin as Lunar Module pilot. They became the crew of Apollo 15. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts, known as the support crew, was designated in addition to the prime and backup crews used on projects Mercury and Gemini. Slayton created the support crews because James McDivitt, who would command Apollo 9, believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the US, meetings that needed a member of the flight crew would be missed. Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander. Usually low in seniority, they assembled the mission\'s rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated; For Apollo 12, they were Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson and Paul J. Weitz. Flight directors were Gerry Griffin, first shift, Pete Frank, second shift, Clifford E. Charlesworth, third shift, and Milton Windler, fourth shift. Flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description, \"The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success.\" Capsule communicators (CAPCOMs) were Scott, Worden, Irwin, Carr, Gibson, Weitz and Don Lind.
## Preparation
### Site selection {#site_selection}
The landing site selection process for Apollo 12 was greatly informed by the site selection for Apollo 11. There were rigid standards for the possible Apollo 11 landing sites, in which scientific interest was not a major factor: they had to be close to the lunar equator and not on the periphery of the portion of the lunar surface visible from Earth; they had to be relatively flat and without major obstructions along the path the Lunar Module (LM) would fly to reach them, their suitability confirmed by photographs from Lunar Orbiter probes. Also desirable was the presence of another suitable site further west in case the mission was delayed, and the Sun would have risen too high in the sky at the original site for desired lighting conditions. The need for three days to recycle if a launch had to be scrubbed meant that only three of the five suitable sites found were designated as potential landing sites for Apollo 11, of which the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of Tranquility was the easternmost. Since Apollo 12 was to attempt the first lunar landing if Apollo 11 failed, both sets of astronauts trained for the same sites.
With the success of Apollo 11, it was initially contemplated that Apollo 12 would land at the site next further west from the Sea of Tranquility, in Sinus Medii. However, NASA planning coordinator Jack Sevier and engineers at the Manned Spaceflight Center at Houston argued for a landing close enough to the crater in which the Surveyor 3 probe had landed in 1967 to allow the astronauts to cut parts from it for return to Earth. The site was otherwise suitable and had scientific interest. Given that Apollo 11 had landed several miles off-target, though, some NASA administrators feared Apollo 12 would land far enough away that the astronauts could not reach the probe, and the agency would be embarrassed. Nevertheless, the ability to perform pinpoint landings was essential if Apollo\'s exploration program was to be carried out, and on July 25, 1969, Apollo Program Manager Samuel Phillips designated what became known as Surveyor crater as the landing site, despite the unanimous opposition of members of two site selection boards.
To locate Surveyor 3, NASA invited Ewen Whitaker, who together with Gerard Kuiper worked on multiple Moon atlases. Whitaker had found the Surveyor 1 landing site with better precision than NASA. By studying images from Surveyor 3 and comparing them with photographs of thousands of similar craters under the microscope, he identified two rocks near Surveyor 3, that led to the identification of the probe\'s location.
### Training and preparation {#training_and_preparation}
The Apollo 12 astronauts spent five hours in mission-specific training for every hour they expected to spend in flight on the mission, a total exceeding 1,000 hours per crew member. Conrad and Bean received more mission-specific training than Apollo 11\'s Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin had. This was in addition to the 1,500 hours of training they received as backup crew members for Apollo 9. The Apollo 12 training included over 400 hours per crew member in simulators of the Command Module (CM) and of the LM. Some of the simulations were linked in real time to flight controllers in Mission Control. To practice landing on the Moon, Conrad flew the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle (LLTV), training in which continued to be authorized even though Armstrong had been forced to bail out of a similar vehicle in 1968, just before it crashed.
Soon after being assigned as Apollo 12 crew commander, Conrad met with NASA geologists and told them that the training for lunar surface activities would be conducted much as Apollo 11\'s, but there was to be no publicity or involvement by the media. Conrad felt he had been abused by the press during Gemini, and the sole Apollo 11 geology field trip had turned into a near-fiasco, with a large media contingent present, some getting in the way---the astronauts had trouble hearing each other due to a hovering press helicopter. After the return of Apollo 11 in July 1969, more time was allotted for geology, but the astronauts\' focus was on getting time in the simulators without being preempted by the Apollo 11 crew. On the six Apollo 12 geology field trips, the astronauts would practice as if on the Moon, collecting samples and documenting them with photographs, while communicating with a CAPCOM and geologists who were out of sight in a nearby tent. Afterwards, the astronauts\' performance in choosing samples and taking photographs would be critiqued. To the frustration of the astronauts, the scientists kept changing the photo documentation procedures; after the fourth or fifth such change, Conrad required that there be no more. After the return of Apollo 11, the Apollo 12 crew was able to view the lunar samples, and be briefed on them by scientists.
As Apollo 11 was targeted for an ellipse-shaped landing zone, rather than at a specific point, there was no planning for geology traverses, the designated tasks to be done at sites of the crew\'s choosing. For Apollo 12, before the mission, some of NASA\'s geology team met with the crew and Conrad suggested they lay out possible routes for him and Bean. The result was four traverses, based on four potential landing points for the LM. This was the start of geology traverse planning that on later missions became a considerable effort involving several organizations.
The stages of the lunar module, LM--6, were delivered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on March 24, 1969, and were mated to each other on April 28. Command module CM--108 and service module SM--108 were delivered to KSC on March 28, and were mated to each other on April 21. Following installation of gear and testing, the launch vehicle, with the spacecraft atop it, was rolled out to Launch Complex 39A on September 8, 1969. The training schedule was complete, as planned, by November 1, 1969; activities after that date were intended as refreshers. The crew members felt that the training, for the most part, was adequate preparation for the Moon mission.
## Hardware
### Launch vehicle {#launch_vehicle}
There were no significant changes to the Saturn V launch vehicle used on Apollo 12, SA--507, from that used on Apollo 11. There were another 17 instrumentation measurements in the Apollo 12 launch vehicle, bringing the number to 1,365. The entire vehicle, including the spacecraft, weighed 6,487,742 lb at launch, an increase from Apollo 11\'s 6,477,875 lb. Of this figure, the spacecraft weighed 110,044 lb, up from 109,646 lb on Apollo 11.
#### Third stage trajectory {#third_stage_trajectory}
After LM separation, the third stage of the Saturn V, the S-IVB, was intended to fly into solar orbit. The S-IVB auxiliary propulsion system was fired, with the intent that the Moon\'s gravity would slingshot the stage into solar orbit. Due to an error, the S-IVB flew past the Moon at too high an altitude to achieve Earth escape velocity. It remained in a semi-stable Earth orbit until it finally escaped Earth orbit in 1971, but briefly returned to Earth orbit 31 years later. It was discovered by amateur astronomer Bill Yeung who gave it the temporary designation J002E3 before it was determined to be an artificial object. Again in solar orbit as of 2021, it may again be captured by Earth\'s gravity, but not at least until the 2040s. The S-IVBs used on later lunar missions were deliberately crashed into the Moon to create seismic events that would register on the seismometers left on the Moon and provide data about the Moon\'s structure.
### Spacecraft
The Apollo 12 spacecraft consisted of Command Module 108 and Service Module 108 (together Command and Service Modules 108, or CSM--108), Lunar Module 6 (LM--6), a Launch Escape System (LES), and Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter 15 (SLA--15). The LES contained three rocket motors to propel the CM to safety in the event of an abort shortly after launch, while the SLA housed the LM and provided a structural connection between the Saturn V and the LM. The SLA was identical to Apollo 11\'s, while the LES differed only in the installation of a more reliable motor igniter.
The CSM was given the call sign *Yankee Clipper*, while the LM had the call sign *Intrepid*. These sea-related names were selected by the all-Navy crew from several thousand proposed names submitted by employees of the prime contractors of the respective modules. George Glacken, a flight test engineer at North American Aviation, builder of the CSM, proposed *Yankee Clipper* as such ships had \"majestically sailed the high seas with pride and prestige for a new America\". *Intrepid* was from a suggestion by Robert Lambert, a planner at Grumman, builder of the LM, as evocative of \"this nation\'s resolute determination for continued exploration of space, stressing our astronauts\' fortitude and endurance of hardship\".
The differences between the CSM and LM of Apollo 11, and those of Apollo 12, were few and minor. A hydrogen separator was added to the CSM to stop the gas from entering the potable water tank---Apollo 11 had had one, though mounted on the water dispenser in the CM\'s cabin. Gaseous hydrogen in the water had given the Apollo 11 crew severe flatulence. Other changes included the strengthening of the recovery loop attached following splashdown, meaning that the swimmers recovering the CM would not have to attach an auxiliary loop. LM changes included a structural modification so that scientific experiment packages could be carried for deployment on the lunar surface. Two hammocks were added for greater comfort of the astronauts while resting on the Moon, and a color television camera substituted for the black and white one used on the lunar surface during Apollo 11.
### ALSEP
The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) was a suite of scientific instruments designed to be emplaced on the lunar surface by the Apollo astronauts, and thereafter operate autonomously, sending data to Earth. Development of the ALSEP was part of NASA\'s response to some scientists who opposed the crewed lunar landing program (they felt that robotic craft could explore the Moon more cheaply) by demonstrating that some tasks, such as deployment of the ALSEP, required humans. In 1966, a contract to design and build the ALSEPs was awarded to the Bendix Corporation. Due to the limited time the Apollo 11 crew would have on the lunar surface, a smaller suite of experiments was flown, known as the Early Apollo Surface Experiment Package (EASEP). Apollo 12 was the first mission to carry an ALSEP; one would be flown on each of the subsequent lunar landing missions, though the components that were included would vary. Apollo 12\'s ALSEP was to be deployed at least 300 ft away from the LM to protect the instruments from the debris that would be generated when the ascent stage of the LM took off to return the astronauts to lunar orbit.
Apollo 12\'s ALSEP included a Lunar Surface Magnetometer (LSM), to measure the magnetic field at the Moon\'s surface, a Lunar Atmosphere Detector (LAD, also known as the Cold Cathode Gauge Experiment), intended to measure the density and temperature of the thin lunar atmosphere and how it varies, a Lunar Ionosphere Detector (LID, also known as the Suprathermal Ion Detector Experiment, or SIDE), intended to study the charged particles in the lunar atmosphere, and the Solar Wind Spectrometer, to measure the strength and direction of the solar wind at the Moon\'s surface---the free-standing Solar Wind Composition Experiment, to measure what makes up the solar wind, would be deployed and then brought back to Earth by the astronauts. A Dust Detector was used to measure the accumulation of lunar dust on the equipment. Apollo 12\'s Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE), a seismometer, would measure moonquakes and other movements in the Moon\'s crust, and would be calibrated by the nearby planned impact of the ascent stage of Apollo 12\'s LM, an object of known mass and velocity hitting the Moon at a known location, and projected to be equivalent to the explosive force of one ton of TNT.
The ALSEP experiments left on the Moon by Apollo 12 were connected to a Central Station, which contained a transmitter, receiver, timer, data processor, and equipment for power distribution and control of the experiments. The equipment was powered by SNAP-27, a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) developed by the Atomic Energy Commission. Containing plutonium, the RTG flown on Apollo 12 was the first use of atomic energy on a crewed NASA spacecraft---some NASA and military satellites had previously used similar systems. The plutonium core was brought from Earth in a cask attached to an LM landing leg, a container designed to survive re-entry in the event of an aborted mission, something NASA considered unlikely. The cask would survive re-entry on Apollo 13, sinking in the Tonga Trench of the Pacific Ocean, apparently without radioactive leakage.
The Apollo 12 ALSEP experiments were activated from Earth on November 19, 1969. The LAD returned only a small amount of useful data due to the failure of its power supply soon after activation. The LSM was deactivated on June 14, 1974, as was the other LSM deployed on the Moon, from Apollo 15. All powered ALSEP experiments that remained active were deactivated on September 30, 1977, principally because of budgetary constraints.
## Mission highlights {#mission_highlights}
### Launch
With President Richard Nixon in attendance, the first time a current U.S. president had witnessed a crewed space launch, as well as Vice President Spiro Agnew, Apollo 12 launched as planned on November 14, 1969, from the Kennedy Space Center at 16:22:00 UTC (11:22 am EST, local time at the launch site). This was at the start of a launch window of three hours and four minutes to reach the Moon with optimal lighting conditions at the planned landing point. There were completely overcast rainy skies, and the vehicle encountered winds of 151.7 kn during ascent, the strongest of any Apollo mission. There was a NASA rule against launching into a cumulonimbus cloud; this had been waived and it was later determined that the launch vehicle never entered such a cloud. Had the mission been postponed, it could have been launched on November 16 with landing at a backup site where there would be no Surveyor, but since time pressure to achieve a lunar landing had been removed by Apollo 11\'s success, NASA might have waited until December for the next opportunity to go to the Surveyor crater.
Lightning struck the Saturn V 36.5 seconds after lift-off, triggered by the vehicle itself. The static discharge caused a voltage transient that knocked all three fuel cells offline, meaning the spacecraft was being powered entirely from its batteries, which could not supply enough current to meet demand. A second strike at 52 seconds knocked out the \"8-ball\" attitude indicator. The telemetry stream at Mission Control was garbled, but the Saturn V continued to fly normally; the strikes had not affected the Saturn V instrument unit guidance system, which functioned independently from the CSM. The astronauts unexpectedly had a board red with caution and warning lights, but could not tell exactly what was wrong.
The Electrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager (EECOM) in Mission Control, John Aaron, remembered the telemetry failure pattern from an earlier test when a power loss caused a malfunction in the CSM signal conditioning electronics (SCE), which converted raw signals from instrumentation to data that could be displayed on Mission Control\'s consoles, and knew how to fix it. Aaron made a call, \"Flight, EECOM. Try SCE to Aux\", to switch the SCE to a backup power supply. The switch was fairly obscure, and neither Flight Director Gerald Griffin, CAPCOM Gerald P. Carr, nor Conrad knew what it was; Bean, who as LMP was the spacecraft\'s engineer, knew where to find it and threw the switch, after which the telemetry came back online, revealing no significant malfunctions. Bean put the fuel cells back online, and the mission continued. Once in Earth parking orbit, the crew carefully checked out their spacecraft before re-igniting the S-IVB third stage for trans-lunar injection. The lightning strikes caused no serious permanent damage.
Initially, it was feared that the lightning strike could have damaged the explosive bolts that opened the Command Module\'s parachute compartment. The decision was made not to share this with the astronauts and to continue with the flight plan, since they would die if the parachutes failed to deploy, whether following an Earth-orbit abort or upon a return from the Moon, so nothing was to be gained by aborting. The parachutes deployed and functioned normally at the end of the mission.
### Outward journey {#outward_journey}
After systems checks in Earth orbit, performed with great care because of the lightning strikes, the trans-lunar injection burn, made with the S-IVB, took place at 02:47:22.80 into the mission, setting Apollo 12 on course for the Moon. An hour and twenty minutes later, the CSM separated from the S-IVB, after which Gordon performed the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver to dock with the LM and separate the combined craft from the S-IVB, which was then sent on an attempt to reach solar orbit. The stage fired its engines to leave the vicinity of the spacecraft, a change from Apollo 11, where the SM\'s Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine was used to distance it from the S-IVB.
As there were concerns the LM might have been damaged by the lightning strikes, Conrad and Bean entered it on the first day of flight to check its status, earlier than planned. They found no issues. At 30:52.44.36, the only necessary midcourse correction during the translunar coast was made, placing the craft on a hybrid, non-free-return trajectory. Previous crewed missions to lunar orbit had taken a free-return trajectory, allowing an easy return to Earth if the craft\'s engines did not fire to enter lunar orbit. Apollo 12 was the first crewed spacecraft to take a hybrid free-return trajectory, that would require another burn to return to Earth, but one that could be executed by the LM\'s Descent Propulsion System (DPS) if the SPS failed. The use of a hybrid trajectory allowed more flexibility in mission planning. It for example allowed Apollo 12 to launch in daylight and reach the planned landing spot on schedule. Use of a hybrid trajectory meant that Apollo 12 took 8 hours longer to go from trans-lunar injection to lunar orbit.
### Lunar orbit and Moon landing {#lunar_orbit_and_moon_landing}
Apollo 12 entered a lunar orbit of 170.2 by with an SPS burn of 352.25 seconds at mission time 83:25:26.36. On the first lunar orbit, there was a television transmission that resulted in good-quality video of the lunar surface. On the third lunar orbit, there was another burn to circularize the craft\'s orbit to 66.1 by, and on the next revolution, preparations began for the lunar landing. The CSM and LM undocked at 107:54:02.3; a half hour later there was a burn by the CSM to separate them. The 14.4 second burn by some of the CSM\'s thrusters meant that the two craft would be 2.2 nmi apart when the LM began the burn to move to a lower orbit in preparation for landing on the Moon.
The LM\'s Descent Propulsion System began a 29-second burn at 109:23:39.9 to move the craft to the lower orbit, from which the 717-second powered descent to the lunar surface began at 110:20:38.1. Conrad had trained to expect a pattern of craters known as \"the Snowman\" to be visible when the craft underwent \"pitchover\", with the Surveyor crater in its center, but had feared he would see nothing recognizable. He was astonished to see the Snowman right where it should be, meaning they were directly on course. He took over manual control, planning to land the LM, as he had in simulations, in an area near the Surveyor crater that had been dubbed \"Pete\'s Parking Lot\", but found it rougher than expected. He had to maneuver, and landed the LM at 110:32:36.2 (06:54:36 UTC on November 19, 1969), just 535 ft from the Surveyor probe. This achieved one objective of the mission, to perform a precision landing near the Surveyor craft.
The lunar coordinates of the landing site were 3.01239° S latitude, 23.42157° W longitude. The landing caused high velocity sandblasting of the Surveyor probe. It was later determined that the sandblasting removed more dust than it delivered onto the Surveyor, because the probe was covered by a thin layer that gave it a tan hue as observed by the astronauts, and every portion of the surface exposed to the direct sandblasting was lightened back toward the original white color through the removal of lunar dust.
### Lunar surface activities {#lunar_surface_activities}
When Conrad, the shortest man of the initial groups of astronauts, stepped onto the lunar surface his first words were \"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that\'s a long one for me.\" This was not an off-the-cuff remark: Conrad had made a `{{USD|500}}`{=mediawiki} bet with reporter Oriana Fallaci he would say these words, after she had queried whether NASA had instructed Neil Armstrong what to say as he stepped onto the Moon. Conrad later said he was never able to collect the money.
thumb\|left\|upright=1.36\|Bean prepares to step onto the lunar surface.
To improve the quality of television pictures from the Moon, a color camera was carried on Apollo 12 (unlike the monochrome camera on Apollo 11). When Bean carried the camera to the place near the LM where it was to be set up, he inadvertently pointed it directly into the Sun, destroying the Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) tube. Television coverage of this mission was thus terminated almost immediately.
After raising a U.S. flag on the Moon, Conrad and Bean devoted much of the remainder of the first EVA to deploying the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP). There were minor difficulties with the deployment. Bean had trouble extracting the RTG\'s plutonium fuel element from its protective cask, and the astronauts had to resort to the use of a hammer to hit the cask and dislodge the fuel element. Some of the ALSEP packages proved hard to deploy, though the astronauts were successful in all cases. With the PSE able to detect their footprints as they headed back to the LM, the astronauts secured a core tube full of lunar material, and collected other samples. The first EVA lasted 3 hours, 56 minutes and 3 seconds.
Four possible geologic traverses had been planned, the variable being where the LM might set down. Conrad had landed it between two of these potential landing points, and during the first EVA and the rest break that followed, scientists in Houston combined two of the traverses into one that Conrad and Bean could follow from their landing point. The resultant traverse resembled a rough circle, and when the astronauts emerged from the LM some 13 hours after ending the first EVA, the first stop was Head crater, some 100 yard from the LM. There, Bean noticed that Conrad\'s footprints showed lighter material underneath, indicating the presence of ejecta from Copernicus crater, 230 mi to the north, something that scientists examining overhead photographs of the site had hoped to find. After the mission, samples from Head allowed geologists to date the impact that formed Copernicus---according to initial dating, some 810,000,000 years ago.
thumb\|upright=1.3\|right\|Conrad with the U.S. flag
The astronauts proceeded to Bench crater and Sharp crater and past Halo crater before arriving at Surveyor crater, where the Surveyor 3 probe had landed. Fearing treacherous footing or that the probe might topple on them, they approached Surveyor cautiously, descending into the shallow crater some distance away and then following a contour to reach the craft, but found the footing solid and the probe stable. They collected several pieces of Surveyor, including the television camera, as well as taking rocks that had been studied by television. Conrad and Bean had procured an automatic timer for their Hasselblad cameras, and had brought it with them without telling Mission Control, hoping to take a selfie of the two of them with the probe, but when the time came to use it, could not locate it among the lunar samples they had already placed in their Hand Tool Carrier. Before returning to the LM\'s vicinity, Conrad and Bean went to Block crater, within Surveyor crater. The second EVA lasted 3 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds, during which they traveled 4300 ft. During the EVAs, Conrad and Bean went as far as 1350 ft from the LM, and collected 73.75 lb of samples.
### Lunar orbit solo activities {#lunar_orbit_solo_activities}
After the LM\'s departure, Gordon had little to say as Mission Control focused on the lunar landing. Once that was accomplished, Gordon sent his congratulations and, on the next orbit, was able to spot both the LM and the Surveyor on the ground and convey their locations to Houston. During the first EVA, Gordon prepared for a plane change maneuver, a burn to alter the CSM\'s orbit to compensate for the rotation of the Moon, though at times he had difficulty communicating with Houston since Conrad and Bean were using the same communications circuit. Once the two moonwalkers had returned to the LM, Gordon executed the burn, which ensured he would be in the proper position to rendezvous with the LM when it launched from the Moon.
While alone in orbit, Gordon performed the Lunar Multispectral Photography Experiment, using four Hasselblad cameras arranged in a ring and aimed through one of the CM\'s windows. With each camera having a different color filter, simultaneous photos would be taken by each, showing the appearance of lunar features at different points on the spectrum. Analysis of the images might reveal colors not visible to the naked eye or detectable with ordinary color film, and information could be obtained about the composition of sites that would not soon be visited by humans. Among the sites studied were contemplated landing points for future Apollo missions.
### Return
LM *Intrepid* lifted off from the Moon at mission time 143:03:47.78, or 14:25:47 UTC on November 20, 1969; after several maneuvers, CSM and LM docked three and a half hours later. At 147:59:31.6, the LM ascent stage was jettisoned, and shortly thereafter the CSM maneuvered away. Under control from Earth, the LM\'s remaining propellant was depleted in a burn that caused it to impact the Moon 39 nmi from the Apollo 12 landing point. The seismometer the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the resulting vibrations for more than an hour.
The crew stayed another day in lunar orbit taking photographs of the surface, including of candidate sites for future Apollo landings. A second plane change maneuver was made at 159:04:45.47, lasting 19.25 seconds.
The trans-Earth injection burn, to send the CSM *Yankee Clipper* towards home, was conducted at 172:27:16.81 and lasted 130.32 seconds. Two short midcourse correction burns were made en route. A final television broadcast was made, the astronauts answering questions submitted by the media. There was ample time for rest on the way back to Earth. One event was the photography of a solar eclipse that occurred when the Earth came between the spacecraft and the Sun; Bean described it as the most spectacular sight of the mission.
### Splashdown
*Yankee Clipper* returned to Earth on November 24, 1969, splashing down in the South Pacific Ocean southeast of Samoa at 244:36:25 (20:58:24 UTC, 10:58:24 am HST, local time at the landing site). The landing was hard, resulting in a camera becoming dislodged and striking Bean in the forehead. After recovery by `{{USS|Hornet|CV-12|6}}`{=mediawiki}, they entered the Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF), while lunar samples and Surveyor parts were sent ahead by air to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL) in Houston. Once the *Hornet* docked in Hawaii, the MQF was offloaded and flown to Ellington Air Force Base near Houston on November 29, from where it was taken to the LRL, where the astronauts remained until released from quarantine on December 10.
## Mission insignia {#mission_insignia}
frameless\|left\|upright=0.8
The Apollo 12 mission patch shows the crew\'s naval background; all three astronauts at the time of the mission were U.S. Navy commanders. It features a clipper ship arriving at the Moon, representing the CM *Yankee Clipper*. The ship trails fire, and flies the flag of the United States. The mission name APOLLO XII and the crew names are on a wide gold border, with a small blue trim. Blue and gold are traditional U.S. Navy colors. The patch has four stars on it -- one each for the three astronauts who flew the mission and one for Clifton Williams, the original LMP on Conrad\'s crew who was killed in 1967 and would have flown the mission. The star was placed there at the suggestion of his replacement, Bean.
The insignia was designed by the crew with the aid of several employees of NASA contractors. The Apollo 12 landing area on the Moon is within the portion of the lunar surface shown on the insignia, based on a photograph of a globe of the Moon, taken by engineers. The clipper ship was based on photographs of such a ship obtained by Bean.
## Aftermath and spacecraft location {#aftermath_and_spacecraft_location}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|right\|Apollo 12 CM *Yankee Clipper* on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center in Hampton, Virginia
After the mission, Conrad urged his crewmates to join him in the Skylab program, seeing in it the best chance of flying in space again. Bean did so---Conrad commanded Skylab 2, the first crewed mission to the space station, while Bean commanded Skylab 3. Gordon, though, still hoped to walk on the Moon and remained with the Apollo program, serving as backup commander of Apollo 15. He was the likely commander of Apollo 18, but that mission was canceled and he did not fly in space again.
The Apollo 12 command module *Yankee Clipper*, was displayed at the Paris Air Show and was then placed at NASA\'s Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia; ownership was transferred to the Smithsonian in July 1971. It is on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center in Hampton.
Mission Control had remotely fired the service module\'s thrusters after jettison, hoping to have it skip off the atmosphere and enter a high-apogee orbit, but the lack of tracking data confirming this caused it to conclude it most likely burned up in the atmosphere at the time of CM re-entry. The S-IVB is in a solar orbit that is sometimes affected by the Earth.
The ascent stage of LM *Intrepid* impacted the Moon November 20, 1969, at 22:17:17.7 UT (5:17 pm EST)`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}3.94 S 21.20 W type:event_globe:moon name=Apollo 12 Intrepid lunar module impact. In 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) photographed the Apollo 12 landing site, where the descent stage, ALSEP, Surveyor 3 spacecraft, and astronaut footpaths remain. In 2011, the LRO returned to the landing site at a lower altitude to take higher resolution photographs.
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Apollo 15
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**Apollo 15** (July 26`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}August 7, 1971) was the ninth crewed mission in the Apollo program and the fourth Moon landing. It was the first J mission, with a longer stay on the Moon and a greater focus on science than earlier landings. Apollo 15 saw the first use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle.
The mission began on July 26 and ended on August 7, with the lunar surface exploration taking place between July 30 and August 2. Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin landed near Hadley Rille and explored the local area using the rover, allowing them to travel further from the Lunar Module than had been possible on previous missions. They spent 18`{{frac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} hours on the Moon\'s surface on four extravehicular activities (EVA), and collected 77 kg of surface material.
At the same time, Command Module Pilot Alfred Worden orbited the Moon, operating the sensors in the scientific instrument module (SIM) bay of the service module. This suite of instruments collected data on the Moon and its environment using a panoramic camera, a gamma-ray spectrometer, a mapping camera, a laser altimeter, a mass spectrometer, and a lunar subsatellite deployed at the end of the moonwalks. The Lunar Module returned safely to the command module and, at the end of Apollo 15\'s 74th lunar orbit, the engine was fired for the journey home. During the return trip, Worden performed the first spacewalk in deep space. The Apollo 15 mission splashed down safely on August 7 despite the partial opening of one of its three parachutes.
The mission accomplished its goals and also saw the collection of the Genesis Rock, thought to be part of the Moon\'s early crust, and Scott\'s use of a hammer and a feather to validate Galileo\'s theory that when there is no air resistance, objects fall at the same rate due to gravity regardless of their mass. The mission received negative publicity the following year when it emerged that the crew had carried unauthorized postal covers to the lunar surface, some of which were sold by a West German stamp dealer. The members of the crew were reprimanded for poor judgment, and did not fly in space again.
## Background
In 1962, NASA contracted for the construction of fifteen Saturn V rockets to achieve the Apollo program\'s goal of a crewed landing on the Moon by 1970; at the time no one knew how many missions this would require. In 1969 Apollo 11 succeeded in landing on the Moon with the sixth Saturn V, so nine rockets remained available for a hoped-for total of ten landings. These plans included a heavier, extended version of the Apollo spacecraft to be used in the last five missions (Apollo 16 through 20). The revamped Lunar Module would be capable of up to a 75-hour stay, and would carry a Lunar Roving Vehicle to the Moon\'s surface. The service module would house a package of orbital experiments to gather data on the Moon. In the original plan Apollo 15 was to be the last of the non-extended missions to land in Censorinus crater. But in anticipation of budget cuts, NASA cancelled three landing missions by September 1970. Apollo 15 became the first of three extended missions, known as J missions, and the landing site was moved to Hadley Rille, originally planned for Apollo 19.
## Crew and key Mission Control personnel {#crew_and_key_mission_control_personnel}
### Crew
Scott was born in 1932 in San Antonio, Texas, and, after spending his freshman year at the University of Michigan on a swimming scholarship, transferred to the United States Military Academy, from which he graduated in 1954. Serving in the Air Force, Scott had received two advanced degrees from MIT in 1962 before being selected as one of the third group of astronauts the following year. He flew in Gemini 8 in 1966 alongside Neil Armstrong and as command module pilot of Apollo 9 in 1969. Worden was born in 1932 in Jackson, Michigan, and like his commander, had attended West Point (class of 1955) and served in the Air Force. Worden earned two master\'s degrees in engineering from Michigan in 1963. Irwin had been born in 1930 in Pittsburgh, and had attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating in 1951 and serving in the Air Force, receiving a master\'s degree from Michigan in 1957. Both Worden and Irwin were selected in the fifth group of astronauts (1966), and Apollo 15 would be their only spaceflight. All three future astronauts had attended Michigan, and two had taken degrees from there; it had been the first university to offer an aeronautical engineering program.
The backup crew was Richard F. Gordon Jr. as commander, Vance D. Brand as command module pilot and Harrison H. Schmitt as Lunar Module pilot. By the usual rotation of crews, the three would most likely have flown Apollo 18, which was canceled. Brand flew later on the Apollo--Soyuz Test Project and on STS-5, the first operational Space Shuttle mission. With NASA under intense pressure to send a professional scientist to the Moon, Schmitt, a geologist, was selected as LMP of Apollo 17 instead of Joe Engle. Apollo 15\'s support crew consisted of astronauts Joseph P. Allen, Robert A. Parker and Karl G. Henize. All three were scientist-astronauts, selected in 1967, as the prime crew felt they needed more assistance with the science than with the piloting. None of the support crew would fly during the Apollo program, waiting until the Space Shuttle program to go into space.
### Mission Control {#mission_control}
The flight directors for Apollo 15 were as follows:
- Gerry Griffin, Gold team
- Milton Windler, Maroon team
- Glynn Lunney, Black team
- Gene Kranz, White team
During a mission the capsule communicators (CAPCOMs), always fellow astronauts, were the only people who normally would speak to the crew. For Apollo 15, the CAPCOMs were Allen, Brand, C. Gordon Fullerton, Gordon, Henize, Edgar D. Mitchell, Parker, Schmitt and Alan B. Shepard.
## Planning and training {#planning_and_training}
Schmitt and other scientist-astronauts advocated for a greater place for science on the early Apollo missions. They were often met with disinterest from other astronauts, or found science displaced by higher priorities. Schmitt realized that what was needed was an expert teacher who could fire the astronauts\' enthusiasm, and contacted Caltech geologist Lee Silver, whom Schmitt introduced to Apollo 13\'s commander, Jim Lovell, and to its Lunar Module pilot, Fred Haise, then in training for their mission. Lovell and Haise were willing to go on a field expedition with Silver, and geology became a significant part of their training. Geologist Farouk El-Baz trained the prime crew\'s command module pilot, Ken Mattingly to inform his planned observations from lunar orbit. The crew\'s newly acquired skills mostly went unused, due to the explosion that damaged the Apollo 13 spacecraft, and caused an abort of the mission. Apollo 14\'s CMP, Stuart Roosa, was enthusiastic about geology, but the mission commander, Shepard, less so.
Already familiar with the spacecraft as the backup crew for Apollo 12, Scott, Worden and Irwin could devote more of their training time as prime crew for Apollo 15 to geology and sampling techniques. Scott was determined that his crew bring back the maximum amount of scientific data possible, and met with Silver in April 1970 to begin planning the geological training. Schmitt\'s assignment as Apollo 15\'s backup LMP made him an insider, and allowed him to spark competition between the prime and backup crews. The cancellation of two Apollo missions in September 1970 transformed Apollo 15 into a J mission, with a longer stay on the lunar surface, and the first Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). This change was welcomed by Scott, who according to David West Reynolds in his account of the Apollo program, was \"something more than a hotshot pilot. Scott had the spirit of a true explorer\", one determined to get the most from the J mission. The additional need for communications, including from planned experiments and the rover, required the near-rebuilding of the Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia.
Geology field trips took place about once a month throughout the crew\'s 20 months of training. At first, Silver would take the commanders and LMPs from the prime and backup crews to geological sites in Arizona and New Mexico as if for a normal field geology lesson, but closer to launch, these trips became more realistic. Crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry while hiking near the Rio Grande Gorge, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a tent. The CAPCOM was accompanied by a geologist unfamiliar with the area who would rely on the astronauts\' descriptions to interpret the findings, and familiarized the crew members with describing landscapes to people who could not see them. Considering himself a serious amateur, Scott came to enjoy field geology.
The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970. The Site Selection Committee had narrowed the field down to two sites---Hadley Rille, a deep channel on the edge of Mare Imbrium close to the Apennine mountains or the crater Marius, near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway. To David Scott the choice was clear, as Hadley \"had more variety. There is a certain intangible quality which drives the spirit of exploration and I felt that Hadley had it. Besides it looked beautiful and usually when things look good they are good.\" The selection of Hadley was made although NASA lacked high resolution images of the landing site; none had been made as the site was considered too rough to risk one of the earlier Apollo missions. The proximity of the Apennine mountains to the Hadley site required a landing approach trajectory of 26 degrees, far steeper than the 15 degrees in earlier Apollo landings.
The expanded mission meant that Worden spent much of his time at North American Rockwell\'s facilities at Downey, California, where the command and service module (CSM) was being built. He undertook a different kind of geology training. Working with El-Baz, he studied maps and photographs of the craters he would pass over while orbiting alone in the CSM. As El-Baz listened and gave feedback, Worden learned how to describe lunar features in a way that would be useful to the scientists who would listen to his transmissions back on Earth. Worden found El-Baz to be an enjoyable and inspiring teacher. Worden usually accompanied his crewmates on their geology field trips, though he was often in an airplane overhead, describing features of the landscape as the plane simulated the speed at which the lunar landscape would pass below the CSM.
The demands of the training strained both Worden\'s and Irwin\'s marriages; each sought Scott\'s advice, fearing a divorce might endanger their places on the mission as not projecting the image NASA wanted for the astronauts. Scott consulted Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, their boss, who stated what was important was that the astronauts do their jobs. Although the Irwins overcame their marital difficulties, the Wordens divorced before the mission.
## Hardware
### Spacecraft
Apollo 15 used command and service module CSM-112, which was given the call sign *Endeavour*, named after HMS *Endeavour*, and Lunar Module LM-10, call sign *Falcon*, named after the United States Air Force Academy mascot. Scott explained the choice of the name *Endeavour* on the grounds that its captain, James Cook, had commanded the first purely scientific sea voyage, and Apollo 15 was the first lunar landing mission on which there was a heavy emphasis on science. Apollo 15 took with it a small piece of wood from Cook\'s ship, while *Falcon* carried two falcon feathers to the Moon in recognition of the crew\'s service in the Air Force. Also part of the spacecraft were a Launch Escape System and a Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter, numbered SLA-19.
Technicians at the Kennedy Space Center had some problems with the instruments in the service module\'s scientific instrument module (SIM) bay. Some instruments were late in arriving, and principal investigators or representatives of NASA contractors sought further testing or to make small changes. Mechanical problems came from the fact the instruments were designed to operate in space, but had to be tested on the surface of the Earth. As such, things like the 7.5 m (24 ft) booms for the mass and gamma ray spectrometers could be tested only using equipment that tried to mimic the space environment, and, in space, the mass spectrometer boom several times did not fully retract.
On the Lunar Module, the fuel and oxidizer tanks were enlarged on both the descent and ascent stages, and the engine bell on the descent stage was extended. Batteries and solar cells were added for increased electrical power. In all this increased the weight of the Lunar Module to 36000 lb, 4000 lb heavier than previous models.
If Apollo 15 had flown as an H mission, it would have been with CSM-111 and LM-9. That CSM was used by the Apollo--Soyuz Test Project in 1975, but the lunar module went unused and is now at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex. *Endeavour* is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, following its transfer of ownership from NASA to the Smithsonian in December 1974.
### Launch vehicle {#launch_vehicle}
The Saturn V that launched Apollo 15 was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to the rocket and to its launch trajectory. It was launched in a more southerly direction (80--100 degrees azimuth) than previous missions, and the Earth parking orbit was lowered to 166 km. These two changes meant 1100 lb more could be launched. The propellant reserves were reduced and the number of retrorockets on the S-IC first stage (used to separate the spent first stage from the S-II second stage) reduced from eight to four. The four outboard engines of the S-IC would be burned longer and the center engine would also burn longer. Changes were also made to the S-II to dampen pogo oscillations.
Once all major systems were installed in the Saturn V, it was moved from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch site, Launch Complex 39A. During late June and early July 1971, the rocket and Launch Umbilical Tower (LUT) were struck by lightning at least four times. There was no damage to the vehicle, and only minor damage to ground support equipment.
### Space suits {#space_suits}
The Apollo 15 astronauts wore redesigned space suits. On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of three. On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the \"A7LB\", had the connectors situated in triangular pairs. This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), to run diagonally from the right shoulder to the left hip, aided in suiting and unsuiting in the cramped confines of the spacecraft. It also allowed for a new waist joint, letting the astronauts bend completely over, and sit on the rover. Upgraded backpacks allowed for longer-duration moonwalks. As in all missions from and after Apollo 13, the commander\'s suit bore a red stripe on the helmet, arms and legs.
Worden wore a suit similar to those worn by the Apollo 14 astronauts, but modified to interface with Apollo 15\'s equipment. Gear needed only for lunar surface EVAs, such as the liquid cooling garment, was not included with Worden\'s suit, as the only EVA he was expected to do was one to retrieve film cartridges from the SIM bay on the flight home.
### Lunar Roving Vehicle {#lunar_roving_vehicle}
thumb\|upright=1.49\|right\|alt=Astronaut works on the Moon at the lunar rover\|Irwin with the Lunar Roving Vehicle on the Moon. Mons Hadley is in the background. *Main article: Lunar Roving Vehicle*
A vehicle that could operate on the surface of the Moon had been considered by NASA since the early 1960s. An early version was called MOLAB, which had a closed cabin and would have massed about 6000 lb; some scaled-down prototypes were tested in Arizona. As it became clear NASA would not soon establish a lunar base, such a large vehicle seemed unnecessary. Still, a rover would enhance the J missions, which were to concentrate on science, though its mass was limited to about 500 lb and it was not then clear that so light a vehicle could be useful. NASA did not decide to proceed with a rover until May 1969, as Apollo 10, the dress rehearsal for the Moon landing, made its way home from lunar orbit. Boeing received the contract for three rovers on a cost-plus basis; overruns (especially in the navigation system) meant the three vehicles eventually cost a total of \$40 million. These cost overruns gained considerable media attention at a time of greater public weariness with the space program, when NASA\'s budget was being cut.
The Lunar Roving Vehicle could be folded into a space 5 ft by 20 in (1.5 m by 0.5 m). Unloaded, it weighed 460 lb (209 kg) and when carrying two astronauts and their equipment, 1500 lb (700 kg). Each wheel was independently driven by a `{{frac|1|4}}`{=mediawiki} horsepower (200 W) electric motor. Although it could be driven by either astronaut, the commander always drove. Travelling at speeds up to 6 to 8 mph (10 to 12 km/h), astronauts for the first time could travel far afield from their lander and still have enough time to do some scientific experiments. The Apollo 15 rover bore a plaque, reading: \"Man\'s First Wheels on the Moon, Delivered by Falcon, July 30, 1971\". During pre-launch testing, the LRV was given additional bracing, lest it collapse if someone sat on it under Earth conditions.
### Particles and Fields Subsatellite {#particles_and_fields_subsatellite}
The Apollo 15 Particles and Fields Subsatellite (PFS-1) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the SIM bay just before the mission left orbit to return to Earth. Its main objectives were to study the plasma, particle, and magnetic field environment of the Moon and map the lunar gravity field. Specifically, it measured plasma and energetic particle intensities and vector magnetic fields, and facilitated tracking of the satellite velocity to high precision. A basic requirement was that the satellite acquire fields and particle data everywhere on the orbit around the Moon. As well as measuring magnetic fields, the satellite contained sensors to study the Moon\'s mass concentrations, or mascons. The satellite orbited the Moon and returned data from August 4, 1971, until January 1973, when, following multiple failures of the subsatellite\'s electronics, ground support was terminated. It is believed to have crashed into the Moon sometime thereafter.
## Mission highlights {#mission_highlights}
### Launch and outbound trip {#launch_and_outbound_trip}
*Main article: Journey of Apollo 15 to the Moon*
Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, at 9:34 am EDT from the Kennedy Space Center at Merritt Island, Florida. The time of launch was at the very start of the two-hour, 37-minute launch window, which would allow Apollo 15 to arrive at the Moon with the proper lighting conditions at Hadley Rille; had the mission been postponed beyond another window on July 27, it could not have been rescheduled until late August. The astronauts had been awakened five and a quarter hours before launch by Slayton, and after breakfast and suiting up, had been taken to Pad 39A, launch site of all seven attempts at crewed lunar landing, and entered the spacecraft about three hours before launch. There were no unplanned delays in the countdown.
At 000:11:36 into the mission, the S-IVB engine shut down, leaving Apollo 15 in its planned parking orbit in low Earth orbit. The mission remained there for 2 hours and 40 minutes, allowing the crew (and Houston, via telemetry) to check the spacecraft\'s systems. At 002:50.02.6 into the mission, the S-IVB was restarted for trans-lunar injection (TLI), placing the craft on a path to the Moon. Before TLI, the craft had completed 1.5 orbits around the Earth.
The command and service module (CSM) and the Lunar Module remained attached to the nearly-exhausted S-IVB booster. Once trans-lunar injection had been achieved, placing the spacecraft on a trajectory towards the Moon, explosive cords separated the CSM from the booster as Worden operated the CSM\'s thrusters to push it away. Worden then maneuvered the CSM to dock with the LM (mounted on the end of the S-IVB), and the combined craft was then separated from the S-IVB by explosives. After Apollo 15 separated from the booster, the S-IVB maneuvered away, and, as planned, impacted the Moon about an hour after the crewed spacecraft entered lunar orbit, though due to an error the impact was 146 km away from the intended target. The booster\'s impact was detected by the seismometers left on the Moon by Apollo 12 and Apollo 14, providing useful scientific data.
There was a malfunctioning light on the craft\'s service propulsion system (SPS); after considerable troubleshooting, the astronauts did a test burn of the system that also served as a midcourse correction. This occurred about 028:40:00 into the mission. Fearing that the light meant the SPS might unexpectedly fire, the astronauts avoided using the control bank with the faulty light, bringing it online only for major burns, and controlling it manually. After the mission returned, the malfunction proved to be caused by a tiny bit of wire trapped within the switch.
After purging and renewing the LM\'s atmosphere to eliminate any contamination, the astronauts entered the LM about 34 hours into the mission, needing to check the condition of its equipment and move in items that would be required on the Moon. Much of this work was televised back to Earth, the camera operated by Worden. The crew discovered a broken outer cover on the Range/Range Rate tapemeter. This was a concern not only because an important piece of equipment, providing information on distance and rate of approach, might not work properly, but because bits of the glass cover were floating around *Falcon*{{\'s}} interior. The tapemeter was supposed to be in a helium atmosphere, but due to the breakage, it was in the LM\'s oxygen atmosphere. Testing on the ground verified the tapemeter would still work properly, and the crew removed most of the glass using a vacuum cleaner and adhesive tape.
As yet, there had been only minor problems, but at about 61:15:00 mission time (the evening of July 28 in Houston), Scott discovered a leak in the water system while preparing to chlorinate the water supply. The crew could not tell where it was coming from, and the issue had the potential to become serious. The experts in Houston found a solution, which was successfully implemented by the crew. The water was mopped up with towels, which were then put out to dry in the tunnel between the command module (CM) and Lunar Module---Scott stated it looked like someone\'s laundry.
At 073:31:14 into the mission, a second midcourse correction, with less than a second of burn, was made. Although there were four opportunities to make midcourse corrections following TLI, only two were needed. Apollo 15 approached the Moon on July 29, and the lunar orbit insertion (LOI) burn had to be made using the SPS, on the far side of the Moon, out of radio contact with Earth. If no burn occurred, Apollo 15 would emerge from the lunar shadow and come back in radio contact faster than expected; the continued lack of communication allowed Mission Control to conclude that the burn had taken place. When contact resumed, Scott did not immediately give the particulars of the burn, but spoke admiringly of the beauty of the Moon, causing Alan Shepard, the Apollo 14 commander, who was awaiting a television interview, to grumble, \"To hell with that shit, give us details of the burn.\" The 398.36-second burn took place at 078:31:46.7 into the mission at an altitude of 86.7 nmi above the Moon, and placed Apollo 15 in an elliptical lunar orbit of 170.1 by.
### Lunar orbit and landing {#lunar_orbit_and_landing}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|alt=Control panel of lunar lander\|The interior of *Falcon* thumb\|upright=1.2\|The Apollo 15 command and service module in lunar orbit, photographed from *Falcon* On Apollo 11 and 12, the Lunar Module decoupled from the CSM and was piloted to a much lower orbit from which the lunar landing attempt commenced; to save fuel in an increasingly heavy lander, beginning with Apollo 14, the SPS in the service module made that burn, known as descent orbit insertion (DOI), with the lunar module still attached to the CSM. The initial orbit Apollo 15 was in had its apocynthion, or high point, over the landing site at Hadley; a burn at the opposite point in the orbit was performed, with the result that Hadley would now be under the craft\'s pericynthion, or low point. The DOI burn was performed at 082:39:49.09 and took 24.53 seconds; the result was an orbit with apocynthion of 58.5 nmi and pericynthion of 9.6 nmi. Overnight between July 29 and 30, as the crew rested, it became apparent to Mission Control that mass concentrations in the Moon were making Apollo 15\'s orbit increasingly elliptical---pericynthion was 7.6 nmi by the time the crew was awakened on July 30. This, and uncertainty as to the exact altitude of the landing site, made it desirable that the orbit be modified, or trimmed. Using the craft\'s RCS thrusters, this took place at 095:56:44.70, lasting 30.40 seconds, and raised the pericynthion to 8.8 nmi and the apocynthion to 60.2 nmi.
As well as preparing the Lunar Module for its descent, the crew continued observations of the Moon (including of the landing site at Hadley) and provided television footage of the surface. Then, Scott and Irwin entered the Lunar Module in preparation for the landing attempt. Undocking was planned for 100:13:56, over the far side of the Moon, but nothing happened when separation was attempted. After analyzing the problem, the crew and Houston decided the probe instrumentation umbilical was likely loose or disconnected; Worden went into the tunnel connecting the command and lunar modules and determined this was so, seating it more firmly. With the problem resolved, *Falcon* separated from *Endeavour* at 100:39:16.2, about 25 minutes late, at an altitude of 5.8 nmi. Worden in *Endeavour* executed a SPS burn at 101:38:58.98 to send *Endeavour* to an orbit of 65.2 nmi by 54.8 nmi in preparation for his scientific work.
Aboard *Falcon*, Scott and Irwin prepared for powered descent initiation (PDI), the burn that was to place them on the lunar surface, and, after Mission Control gave them permission, they initiated PDI at 104:30:09.4 at an altitude of 5.8 nmi, slightly higher than planned. During the first part of the descent, *Falcon* was aligned so the astronauts were on their backs and thus could not see the lunar surface below them, but after the craft made a pitchover maneuver, they were upright and could see the surface in front of them. Scott, who as commander performed the landing, was confronted with a landscape that did not at first seem to resemble what he had seen during simulations. Part of this was due to an error in the landing path of some 3000 ft, of which CAPCOM Ed Mitchell informed the crew prior to pitchover; part because the craters Scott had relied on in the simulator were difficult to make out under lunar conditions, and he initially could not see Hadley Rille. He concluded that they were likely to overshoot the planned landing site, and, once he could see the rille, started maneuvering the vehicle to move the computer\'s landing target back towards the planned spot, and looked for a relatively smooth place to land.
thumb\|upright=1.2\|alt=Film showing the lunar surface as the lander descends to it\|Apollo 15 landing on the Moon at Hadley, seen from the perspective of the Lunar Module Pilot. Starts at about 5000 feet. Below about 60 ft, Scott could see nothing of the surface because of the quantities of lunar dust being displaced by *Falcon*{{\'s}} exhaust. *Falcon* had a larger engine bell than previous LMs, in part to accommodate a heavier load, and the importance of shutting down the engine at initial contact rather than risk \"blowback\", the exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface and going back into the engine (possibly causing an explosion) had been impressed on the astronauts by mission planners. Thus, when Irwin called \"Contact\", indicating that one of the probes on the landing leg extensions had touched the surface, Scott immediately shut off the engine, letting the lander fall the remaining distance to the surface. Already moving downward at about .5 ft per second, *Falcon* dropped from a height of 1.6 ft. Scott\'s speed resulted in what was likely the hardest lunar landing of any of the crewed missions, at about 6.8 ft per second, causing a startled Irwin to yell \"Bam!\" Scott had landed *Falcon* on the rim of a small crater he could not see, and the lander settled back at an angle of 6.9 degrees and to the left of 8.6 degrees. Irwin described it in his autobiography as the hardest landing he had ever been in, and he feared that the craft would keep tipping over, forcing an immediate abort.
*Falcon* landed at 104:42:29.3 (22:16:29 GMT on July 30), with approximately 103 seconds of fuel remaining, about 1800 ft from the planned landing site. After Irwin\'s exclamation, Scott reported, \"Okay, Houston. The *Falcon* is on the Plain at Hadley.\" Once within the planned landing zone, the increased mobility provided by the Lunar Roving Vehicle made unnecessary any further maneuvering.
### Lunar surface {#lunar_surface}
#### Stand-up EVA and first EVA {#stand_up_eva_and_first_eva}
With *Falcon* due to remain on the lunar surface for almost three days, Scott deemed it important to maintain the circadian rhythm they were used to, and as they had landed in the late afternoon, Houston time, the two astronauts were to sleep before going onto the surface. But the time schedule allowed Scott to open the lander\'s top hatch (usually used for docking) and spend a half hour looking at their surroundings, describing them, and taking photographs. Lee Silver had taught him the importance of going to a high place to survey a new field site, and the top hatch served that purpose. Deke Slayton and other managers were initially opposed due to the oxygen that would be lost, but Scott got his way. During the only stand-up extravehicular activity (EVA) ever performed through the LM\'s top hatch on the lunar surface, Scott was able to make plans for the following day\'s EVA. He offered Irwin a chance to look out as well, but this would have required rearranging the umbilicals connecting Irwin to *Falcon*{{\'s}} life support system, and he declined. After repressurizing the spacecraft, Scott and Irwin removed their space suits for sleep, becoming the first astronauts to doff their suits while on the Moon.
Throughout the sleep period Mission Control in Houston monitored a slow but steady oxygen loss. Scott and Irwin eventually were awakened an hour early, and the source of the problem was found to be an open valve on the urine transfer device. In post-mission debriefing, Scott recommended that future crews be woken at once under similar circumstances. After the problem was solved, the crew began preparation for the first Moon walk.
After donning their suits and depressurizing the cabin, Scott and Irwin began their first full EVA, becoming the seventh and eighth humans, respectively, to walk on the Moon. They began deploying the lunar rover, stored folded up in a compartment of *Falcon*{{\'s}} descent stage, but this proved troublesome due to the slant of the lander. The experts in Houston suggested lifting the front end of the rover as the astronauts pulled it out, and this worked. Scott began a system checkout. One of the batteries gave a zero voltage reading, but this was only an instrumentation problem. A greater concern was that the front wheel steering would not work. However, the rear wheel steering was sufficient to maneuver the vehicle. Completing his checkout, Scott said \"Okay. Out of detent; we\'re moving\", maneuvering the rover away from *Falcon* in mid-sentence. These were the first words uttered by a human while driving a vehicle on the Moon. The rover carried a television camera, controlled remotely from Houston by NASA\'s Ed Fendell. The resolution was not high compared to the still photographs that would be taken, but the camera allowed the geologists on Earth to indirectly participate in Scott and Irwin\'s activities.
The rille was not visible from the landing site, but as Scott and Irwin drove over the rolling terrain, it came into view. They were able to see Elbow crater, and they began to drive in that direction. Reaching Elbow, a known location, allowed Mission Control to backtrack and get closer to pinpointing the location of the lander. The astronauts took samples there, and then drove to another crater on the flank of Mons Hadley Delta, where they took more. After concluding this stop, they returned to the lander to drop off their samples and prepare to set up the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP), the scientific instruments that would remain when they left. Scott had difficulty drilling the holes required for the heat flow experiment, and the work was not completed when they had to return to the lander. The first EVA lasted 6 hours and 32 minutes.
#### Second and third EVAs {#second_and_third_evas}
The rover\'s front steering, inoperative during the first EVA, worked during the second and third ones. The target of the second EVA, on August 1, was the slope of Mons Hadley Delta, where the pair sampled boulders and craters along the Apennine Front. They spent an hour at Spur crater, during which the astronauts collected a sample dubbed the Genesis Rock. This rock, an anorthosite, is believed to be part of the early lunar crust---the hope of finding such a specimen had been one reason the Hadley area had been chosen. Once back at the landing site, Scott continued to try to drill holes for experiments at the ALSEP site, with which he had struggled the day before. After conducting soil-mechanics experiments and raising the U.S. flag, Scott and Irwin returned to the LM. EVA 2 lasted 7 hours and 12 minutes.
Although Scott had eventually been successful at drilling the holes, he and Irwin had been unable to retrieve a core sample, and this was an early order of business during EVA 3, their third and final moonwalk. Time that could have been devoted to geology ticked away as Scott and Irwin attempted to pull it out. Once it had been retrieved, more time passed as they attempted to break the core into pieces for transport to Earth. Hampered by an incorrectly mounted vise on the rover, they eventually gave up on this---the core would be transported home with one segment longer than planned. Scott wondered if the core was worth the amount of time and effort invested, and the CAPCOM, Joe Allen, assured him it was. The core proved one of the most important items brought back from the Moon, revealing much about its history, but the expended time meant the planned visit to a group of hills known as the North Complex had to be scrubbed. Instead, the crew again ventured to the edge of Hadley Rille, this time to the northwest of the immediate landing site.
Once the astronauts were beside the LM, Scott used a kit provided by the Postal Service to cancel a first day cover of two stamps being issued on August 2, the current date. Scott then performed an experiment in view of the television camera, using a falcon feather and hammer to demonstrate Galileo\'s theory that all objects in a given gravity field fall at the same rate, regardless of mass, in the absence of aerodynamic drag. He dropped the hammer and feather at the same time; because of the negligible lunar atmosphere, there was no drag on the feather, which hit the ground at the same time as the hammer. This was Joe Allen\'s idea (he also served as CAPCOM during it) and was part of an effort to find a memorable popular science experiment to do on the Moon along the lines of Shepard\'s hitting of golf balls. The feather was most likely from a female gyrfalcon (a type of falcon), a mascot at the United States Air Force Academy.
Scott then drove the rover to a position away from the LM, where the television camera could be used to observe the lunar liftoff. Near the rover, he left a small aluminum statuette called *Fallen Astronaut*, along with a plaque bearing the names of 14 known American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who had died in the furtherance of space exploration. The memorial was left while the television camera was turned away; he told Mission Control he was doing some cleanup activities around the rover. Scott disclosed the memorial in a post-flight news conference. He also placed a Bible on the control panel of the rover before leaving it for the last time to enter the LM.
The EVA lasted 4 hours, 49 minutes and 50 seconds. In total, the two astronauts spent 18`{{frac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} hours outside the LM and collected approximately 77 kg of lunar samples.
### Command module activities {#command_module_activities}
After the departure of *Falcon*, Worden in *Endeavour* executed a burn to take the CSM to a higher orbit. While *Falcon* was on the Moon, the mission effectively split, Worden and the CSM being assigned their own CAPCOM and flight support team.
thumb\|upright=1.3\|left\|alt=A spacecraft seen with the Moon in background\|*Endeavour*, with the SIM bay exposed, as seen from the Lunar Module *Falcon* Worden got busy with the tasks that were to occupy him for much of the time he spent in space alone: photography and operating the instruments in the SIM bay. The door to the SIM bay had been explosively jettisoned during the translunar coast. Filling previously unused space in the service module, the SIM bay contained a gamma-ray spectrometer, mounted on the end of a boom, an X-ray spectrometer and a laser altimeter, which failed part way through the mission. Two cameras, a stellar camera and a metric camera, together comprised the mapping camera, which was complemented by a panoramic camera, derived from spy technology. The altimeter and cameras permitted the exact time and location from which pictures were taken to be determined. Also present were an alpha particle spectrometer, which could be used to detect evidence of lunar volcanism, and a mass spectrometer, also on a boom in the hope it would be unaffected by contamination from the ship. The boom would prove troublesome, as Worden would not always be able to get it to retract.
*Endeavour* was slated to pass over the landing site at the moment of planned landing, but Worden could not see *Falcon* and did not spot it until a subsequent orbit. He also exercised to avoid muscle atrophy, and Houston kept him up to date on Scott and Irwin\'s activities on the lunar surface. The panoramic camera did not operate perfectly, but provided enough images that no special adjustment was made. Worden took many photographs through the command module\'s windows, often with shots taken at regular intervals. His task was complicated by the lack of a working mission timer in the Lower Equipment Bay of the command module, as its circuit breaker had popped en route to the Moon. Worden\'s observations and photographs would inform the decision to send Apollo 17 to Taurus-Littrow to search for evidence of volcanic activity. There was a communications blackout when the CSM passed over the far side of the Moon from Earth; Worden greeted each resumption of contact with the words, \"Hello, Earth. Greetings from *Endeavour*\", expressed in different languages. Worden and El-Baz had come up with the idea, and the geology instructor had aided the astronaut in accumulating translations.
Results from the SIM bay experiments would include the conclusion, from data gathered by the X-ray spectrometer, that there was greater fluorescent X-ray flux than anticipated, and that the lunar highlands were richer in aluminum than were the mares. *Endeavour* was in a more inclined orbit than previous crewed missions, and Worden saw features that were not known previously, supplementing photographs with thorough descriptions.
By the time Scott and Irwin were ready to take off from the lunar surface and return to *Endeavour*, the CSM\'s orbit had drifted due to the rotation of the Moon, and a plane change burn was required to ensure that the CSM\'s orbit would be in the same plane as that of the LM once it took off from the Moon. Worden accomplished the 18-second burn with the SPS.
### Return to Earth {#return_to_earth}
thumb \|alt=Video showing the lunar lander taking off\|The liftoff from the Moon as seen by the TV camera on the lunar rover *Main article: Return of Apollo 15 to Earth*
*Falcon* lifted off the Moon at 17:11:22 GMT on August 2 after 66 hours and 55 minutes on the lunar surface. Docking with the CSM took place just under two hours later. After the astronauts transferred samples and other items from the LM to the CSM, the LM was sealed off, jettisoned, and intentionally crashed into the lunar surface, an impact registered by the seismometers left by Apollo 12, 14 and 15. The jettison proved difficult because of problems getting airtight seals, requiring a delay in discarding the LM. After the jettison, Slayton came on the loop to recommend the astronauts take sleeping pills, or at least that Scott and Irwin do so. Scott as mission commander refused to allow it, feeling there was no need. During the EVAs, the doctors had noticed irregularities in both Scott\'s and Irwin\'s heartbeats, but the crew were not informed during the flight. Irwin had heart problems after retiring as an astronaut and died in 1991 of a heart attack; Scott felt that he as commander should have been informed of the biomedical readings. NASA doctors at the time theorized the heart readings were due to potassium deficiency, due to their hard work on the surface and inadequate resupply through liquids.
The crew spent the next two days working on orbital science experiments, including more observations of the Moon from orbit and releasing the subsatellite. *Endeavour* departed lunar orbit with another burn of the SPS engine of 2 minutes 21 seconds at 21:22:45 GMT on August 4. The next day, during the return to Earth, Worden performed a 39-minute EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the service module\'s scientific instrument module (SIM) bay, with assistance from Irwin who remained at the command module\'s hatch. At approximately 171,000 nautical miles (197,000 mi; 317,000 km) from Earth, it was the first \"deep space\" EVA in history, performed at great distance from any planetary body. As of `{{year}}`{=mediawiki}, it remains one of only three such EVAs, all performed during Apollo\'s J missions under similar circumstances. Later that day, the crew set a record for the longest Apollo flight to that point.
On approach to Earth on August 7, the service module was jettisoned, and the command module reentered the Earth\'s atmosphere. Although one of the three parachutes on the CM failed after deploying, likely due to damage as the spacecraft vented fuel, only two were required for a safe landing (one extra for redundancy). Upon landing in the North Pacific Ocean, the CM and crew were recovered and taken aboard the recovery ship, `{{USS|Okinawa|LPH-3|6}}`{=mediawiki}, after a mission lasting 12 days, 7 hours, 11 minutes and 53 seconds.
## Assessment
The mission objectives for Apollo 15 were to \"perform selenological inspection, survey, and sampling of materials and surface features in a pre-selected area of the Hadley--Apennine region. Emplace and activate surface experiments. Evaluate the capability of the Apollo equipment to provide extended lunar surface stay time, increased extravehicular operations, and surface mobility. \[and\] Conduct inflight experiments and photographic tasks from lunar orbit.\" It achieved all those objectives. The mission also completed a long list of other tasks, including experiments. One of the photographic objectives, to obtain images of the gegenschein from lunar orbit, was not completed, as the camera was not pointed at the proper spot in the sky. According to the conclusions in the *Apollo 15 Mission Report*, the journey \"was the fourth lunar landing and resulted in the collection of a wealth of scientific information. The Apollo system, in addition to providing a means of transportation, excelled as an operational scientific facility.\"
Apollo 15 saw an increase in public interest in the Apollo program, in part due to fascination with the LRV, as well as the attractiveness of the Hadley Rille site and the increased television coverage. According to David Woods in the *Apollo Lunar Flight Journal*, `{{blockquote|
Though subsequent missions travelled further on the Moon, brought back more samples and put the lessons of Apollo 15 into practice, this feat of unalloyed exploration still stands out as a great moment of human achievement. It is remembered still for its combination of competent enthusiasm, magnificent machinery, finely honed science and the grandeur of a very special site in the cosmos beside a meandering rille and graceful, massive mountains – Hadley Base.<ref group=ALFJ name=summary />
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Controversies
Further information: Apollo 15 postal covers incident
Despite the successful mission, the careers of the crew were tarnished by a deal they had made before the flight to carry postal covers to the Moon in exchange for about \$7,000 each, which they planned to set aside for their children. Walter Eiermann, who had many professional and social contacts with NASA employees and the astronaut corps, served as intermediary between the astronauts and a West German stamp dealer, Hermann Sieger, and Scott carried about 400 covers onto the spacecraft; they were subsequently transferred into *Falcon* and remained inside the lander during the astronauts\' activities on the surface of the Moon. After the return to Earth, 100 of the covers were given to Eiermann, who passed them on to Sieger, receiving a commission. No permission had been received from Slayton to carry the covers, as required.
The 100 covers were put on sale to Sieger\'s customers in late 1971 at a price of about \$1,500 each. After receiving the agreed payments, the astronauts returned them, and accepted no compensation. In April 1972, Slayton learned that unauthorized covers had been carried, and removed the three as the backup crew for Apollo 17. The matter became public in June 1972 and the three astronauts were reprimanded for poor judgment; none ever flew in space again. During the investigation, the astronauts had surrendered those covers still in their possession; after Worden filed suit, they were returned in 1983, something *Slate* magazine deemed an exoneration.
Another controversy arose later, this time surrounding the *Fallen Astronaut* statuette that Scott had left on the Moon. Before the mission, Scott had made a verbal agreement with Belgian artist Paul Van Hoeydonck to sculpt the statuette. Scott\'s intent, in keeping with NASA\'s strict policy against commercial exploitation of the US government\'s space program, was for a simple memorial with a minimum of publicity, keeping the artist anonymous, no commercial replicas being made except for a single copy for public exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum commissioned after the sculpture\'s public disclosure during the post-flight press conference. Van Hoeydonck claims to have had a different understanding of the agreement, by which he would have received recognition as the creator of a tribute to human space exploration, with rights to sell replicas to the public. Under pressure from NASA, Van Hoeydonck canceled a plan to publicly sell 950 signed copies.
In 2021, Scott published a document entitled \"Memorandum for the Record\", in which he stated that the figurine left on the Moon was designed and fabricated by NASA personnel. While testifying before a Senate committee in 1972, he had stated that the figurine had been made and provided by Van Hoeydonck at Scott\'s request.
During those congressional hearings into the postal covers and Fallen Astronaut matters, two Bulova timepieces taken on the mission by Scott were also matters of controversy. Before the mission, Scott had been introduced to Bulova\'s representative, General James McCormack by Apollo 8 commander Frank Borman. Bulova had been seeking to have its timepieces taken on Apollo missions, but after evaluation, NASA had selected Omega watches instead. Scott brought the Bulova timepieces on the mission, without disclosing them to Slayton. During Scott\'s second EVA, the crystal on his NASA standard issue Omega Speedmaster watch popped off, and, during the third EVA, he used a Bulova watch. The Bulova Chronograph Model #88510/01 that Scott wore on the lunar surface was a prototype, given to him by the Bulova Company, and it is the only privately owned watch to have been worn while walking on the lunar surface. There are images of him wearing this watch, when he saluted the American flag on the Moon, with the Hadley Delta expanse in the background. In 2015, the watch sold for \$1.625 million, which makes it one of the most expensive astronaut-owned artifact ever sold at auction and one of the most expensive watches sold at auction.
## Mission insignia {#mission_insignia}
The Apollo 15 mission patch carries Air Force motifs, a nod to the crew\'s service there, just as the Apollo 12 all-Navy crew\'s patch had featured a sailing ship. The circular patch features stylized red, white and blue birds flying over Hadley Rille. Immediately behind the birds, a line of craters forms the Roman numeral XV. The Roman numerals were hidden in emphasized outlines of some craters after NASA insisted that the mission number be displayed in Arabic numerals. The artwork is circled in red, with a white band giving the mission and crew names and a blue border. Scott contacted fashion designer Emilio Pucci to design the patch, who came up with the basic idea of the three-bird motif on a square patch.
The crew changed the shape to round and the colors from blues and greens to a patriotic red, white and blue. Worden stated that each bird also represented an astronaut, white being his own color (and as Command Module Pilot, uppermost), Scott being the blue bird and Irwin the red. The colors matched Chevrolet Corvettes leased by the astronauts at KSC; a Florida car dealer had, since the time of Project Mercury, been leasing Chevrolets to astronauts for \$1 and later selling them to the public. The astronauts were photographed with the cars and the training LRV for the June 11, 1971, edition of *Life* magazine.
## Visibility from space {#visibility_from_space}
The halo area of the Apollo 15 landing site, created by the LM\'s exhaust plume, was observed by a camera aboard the Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE and confirmed by comparative analysis of photographs in May 2008. This corresponds well to photographs taken from the Apollo 15 command module showing a change in surface reflectivity due to the plume, and was the first visible trace of crewed landings on the Moon seen from space since the close of the Apollo program.
## Gallery
### Still images {#still_images}
<File:Apollo> 15 rollout from VAB.jpg\|alt=A rocket on a launchpad\|The Apollo 15 launch vehicle during rollout <File:Jim> Irwin (left) Al Worden, and Dave Scott pose in front of the VAB during the Saturn V roll-out.jpg\|alt=Three men stand in front of a rocket\|The astronauts pose before the VAB as the Saturn V is rolled out <File:Al> Worden, Dave Scott, Deke Slayton, and Jack Schmitt dig into the pre-launch breakfast.jpg\|alt=Several men at a sit-down breakfast\|Worden, Scott, Slayton and Schmitt eat the pre-launch breakfast <File:Falcon> lunar module on the Moon.jpg\|alt=A lunar landscape with a lander in the background\|*Falcon* on the Moon. Note the slant of the vehicle <File:Apollo> 15 Station 2 Rille, Lunar Rover, Scott.jpg\|alt=Lunar landscape with man leaning over rover\|Scott does geology work near Hadley Rille <File:Apollo> 15 Dave Scott at St. 9a.jpg\|alt=A man in a spacesuit leans over a large rock\|Scott examines a boulder during the third EVA <File:A15.s74> 41836.jpg\|alt=A control room; visible on a large screen are two astronauts walking on the Moon\|Mission Control in Houston during the third Apollo 15 EVA, August 2, 1971. CAPCOM Joe Allen is to left (pointing) with Dick Gordon next to him. <File:S71-41759.jpg%7Calt=Several> rows of consoles. A large screen showed a lunar lander\|Mission Control in Houston as *Falcon* takes off from the Moon <File:Worden> podczas EVA S71-43202.jpg\|alt=A man in a spacesuit floating beside a spacecraft\|Alfred Worden in space suit retrieving film cartridges during the transearth coast <File:S71-42825.jpg%7Calt=Three> men in flight suits disembark a helicopter\|The astronauts disembark their helicopter aboard the *Okinawa* <File:Moon> AS15-M-2778.jpg\|alt=The Moon\|The Moon as seen from the departing Apollo 15 spacecraft <File:Stafford> Air & Space Museum, Weatherford, OK, US (60).jpg\|alt=A plaque to be left on the lander\|Backup of the plaque left on *Falcon*{{\'s}} descent stage <File:Apollo> 15 Command Module at the National Museum of the United States Air Force.jpg\|alt=A spaceship on display\|Command Module *Endeavour* on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio <File:Apollo> 15 Space Suit David Scott.jpg\|The spacesuit David Scott wore during the Apollo 15 mission is on display at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C.
### Multimedia
<File:Apollo> 15 CSM moving away from LM.ogv \|alt=Film of a spacecraft in space\|*Endeavour* filmed from *Falcon* after undocking <File:Apollo> 15 Lunar Roving Vehicle deployment.webm\|alt=The lunar rover is set up\|Deployment of the lunar rover on the Moon <File:Apollo> 15 liftoff from inside LM.ogv\|alt=A spacecraft takes off from the Moon\|Liftoff from the Moon, seen through the LMP\'s window as Scott and Irwin play a prerecorded instrumental version of the song \"The U.S. Air Force\", commonly known as \"Wild Blue Yonder\". <File:Apollo> 15 splashdown.ogv\|alt=A spacecraft descends to the ocean\|Apollo 15 splashdown
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April 17
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Argument from morality
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The **argument from morality** is an argument for the existence of God. Arguments from morality tend to be based on moral normativity or moral order. Arguments from moral normativity observe some aspect of morality and argue that God is the best or only explanation for this, concluding that God must exist. Arguments from moral order are based on the asserted need for moral order to exist in the universe. They claim that, for this moral order to exist, God must exist to support it. The argument from morality is noteworthy in that one cannot evaluate the soundness of the argument without attending to almost every important philosophical issue in meta-ethics.
German philosopher Immanuel Kant devised an argument from morality based on practical reason. Kant argued that the goal of humanity is to achieve perfect happiness and virtue (the *summum bonum*) and believed that an afterlife must be assumed to exist in order for this to be possible, and that God must be assumed to exist to provide this. Rather than aiming to prove the existence of God, however, Kant was simply attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists, and therefore that we are entitled to make such an assumption only as a regulative principle rather than a constitutive principle (meaning that such a principle can guide our actions, but it does not provide knowledge). In his book *Mere Christianity*, C. S. Lewis argued that \"conscience reveals to us a moral law whose source cannot be found in the natural world, thus pointing to a supernatural Lawgiver.\" Lewis argued that accepting the validity of human reason as a given must include accepting the validity of practical reason, which could not be valid without reference to a higher cosmic moral order which could not exist without a God to create and/or establish it. A related argument is from conscience; John Henry Newman argued that the conscience supports the claim that objective moral truths exist because it drives people to act morally even when it is not in their own interest. Newman argued that, because the conscience suggests the existence of objective moral truths, God must exist to give authority to these truths.
Contemporary defenders of the argument from morality are Graham Ward, Alister McGrath and William Lane Craig.
## General form {#general_form}
All variations of the argument from morality begin with an observation about moral thought or experiences and conclude with the existence of God. Some of these arguments propose moral facts which they claim evident through human experience, arguing that God is the best explanation for these. Other versions describe some end which humans should strive to attain that is only possible if God exists.
Many arguments from morality are based on moral normativity, which suggests that objective moral truths exist and require God\'s existence to give them authority. Often, they consider that morality seems to be binding -- obligations are seen to convey more than just a preference, but imply that the obligation will stand, regardless of other factors or interests. For morality to be binding, God must exist. In its most general form, the argument from moral normativity is:
1. A human experience of morality is observed.
2. God is the best or only explanation for this moral experience.
3. Therefore, God exists.`{{Failed verification|date=April 2020}}`{=mediawiki}
Some arguments from moral order suggest that morality is based on rationality and that this can only be the case if there is a moral order in the universe. The arguments propose that only the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived could support the existence of moral order in the universe, so God must exist. Alternative arguments from moral order have proposed that we have an obligation to attain the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue. They attest that whatever we are obliged to do must be possible, and achieving the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue is only possible if a natural moral order exists. A natural moral order requires the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived, so God must exist.
## Variations
### Practical reason {#practical_reason}
In his *Critique of Pure Reason*, German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated that no successful argument for God\'s existence arises from reason alone. In his *Critique of Practical Reason* he went on to argue that, despite the failure of these arguments, morality requires that God\'s existence is assumed, owing to practical reason. Rather than proving the existence of God, Kant was attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists. Kant argued that humans are obliged to bring about the *summum bonum*: the two central aims of moral virtue and happiness, where happiness arises out of virtue. As ought implies can, Kant argued, it must be possible for the *summum bonum* to be achieved. He accepted that it is not within the power of humans to bring the *summum bonum* about, because we cannot ensure that virtue always leads to happiness, so there must be a higher power who has the power to create an afterlife where virtue can be rewarded by happiness.
Philosopher G. H. R. Parkinson notes a common objection to Kant\'s argument: that what ought to be done does not necessarily entail that it is possible. He also argues that alternative conceptions of morality exist which do not rely on the assumptions that Kant makes -- he cites utilitarianism as an example which does not require the *summum bonum*. Nicholas Everitt argues that much moral guidance is unattainable, such as the Biblical command to be Christ-like. He proposes that Kant\'s first two premises only entail that we must try to achieve the perfect good, not that it is actually attainable.
### Argument from objective moral truths {#argument_from_objective_moral_truths}
Both theists and non-theists have accepted that the existence of objective moral truths might entail the existence of God. Atheist philosopher J. L. Mackie accepted that, if objective moral truths existed, they would warrant a supernatural explanation. Scottish philosopher W. R. Sorley presented the following argument:
1. If morality is objective and absolute, God must exist.
2. Morality is objective and absolute.
3. Therefore, God must exist.
Many critics have challenged the second premise of this argument, by offering a biological and sociological account of the development of human morality which suggests that it is neither objective nor absolute. This account, supported by biologist E. O. Wilson and philosopher Michael Ruse, proposes that the human experience of morality is a by-product of natural selection, a theory philosopher Mark D. Linville calls evolutionary naturalism. According to the theory, the human experience of moral obligations was the result of evolutionary pressures, which attached a sense of morality to human psychology because it was useful for moral development; this entails that moral values do not exist independently of the human mind. Morality might be better understood as an evolutionary imperative in order to propagate genes and ultimately reproduce. No human society today advocates immorality, such as theft or murder, because it would undoubtedly lead to the end of that particular society and any chance for future survival of offspring. Scottish empiricist David Hume made a similar argument, that belief in objective moral truths is unwarranted and to discuss them is meaningless.
Because evolutionary naturalism proposes an empirical account of morality, it does not require morality to exist objectively; Linville considers the view that this will lead to moral scepticism or antirealism. C. S. Lewis argued that, if evolutionary naturalism is accepted, human morality cannot be described as absolute and objective because moral statements cannot be right or wrong. Despite this, Lewis argued, those who accept evolutionary naturalism still act as if objective moral truths exist, leading Lewis to reject naturalism as incoherent. As an alternative ethical theory, Lewis offered a form of divine command theory which equated God with goodness and treated goodness as an essential part of reality, thus asserting God\'s existence.
J. C. A. Gaskin challenges the first premise of the argument from moral objectivity, arguing that it must be shown why absolute and objective morality entails that morality is commanded by God, rather than simply a human invention. It could be the consent of humanity that gives it moral force, for example. American philosopher Michael Martin argues that it is not necessarily true that objective moral truths must entail the existence of God, suggesting that there could be alternative explanations: he argues that naturalism may be an acceptable explanation and, even if a supernatural explanation is necessary, it does not have to be God (polytheism is a viable alternative). Martin also argues that a non-objective account of ethics might be acceptable and challenges the view that a subjective account of morality would lead to moral anarchy.
William Lane Craig has argued for this form of the moral argument.
### Argument for conscience {#argument_for_conscience}
Related to the argument from morality is the argument from conscience, associated with eighteenth-century bishop Joseph Butler and nineteenth-century cardinal John Henry Newman. Newman proposed that the conscience, as well as giving moral guidance, provides evidence of objective moral truths which must be supported by the divine. He argued that emotivism is an inadequate explanation of the human experience of morality because people avoid acting immorally, even when it might be in their interests. Newman proposed that, to explain the conscience, God must exist.
British philosopher John Locke argued that moral rules cannot be established from conscience because the differences in people\'s consciences would lead to contradictions. Locke also noted that the conscience is influenced by \"education, company, and customs of the country\", a criticism mounted by J. L. Mackie, who argued that the conscience should be seen as an \"introjection\" of other people into an agent\'s mind. Michael Martin challenges the argument from conscience with a naturalistic account of conscience, arguing that naturalism provides an adequate explanation for the conscience without the need for God\'s existence. He uses the example of the internalization by humans of social pressures, which leads to the fear of going against these norms. Even if a supernatural cause is required, he argues, it could be something other than God; this would mean that the phenomenon of the conscience is no more supportive of monotheism than polytheism.
C. S. Lewis argues for the existence of God in a similar way in his book *Mere Christianity*, but he does not directly refer to it as the argument from morality.
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Alvar Aalto
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**Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto** (`{{IPA|fi|ˈhuːɡo ˈɑlʋɑr ˈhenrik ˈɑːlto|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 3 February 1898 -- 11 May 1976) was a Finnish architect and designer. His work includes architecture, furniture, textiles and glassware, as well as sculptures and paintings. He never regarded himself as an artist, seeing painting and sculpture as \"branches of the tree whose trunk is architecture.\" Aalto\'s early career ran in parallel with the rapid economic growth and industrialization of Finland during the first half of the 20th century. Many of his clients were industrialists, among them the Ahlström-Gullichsen family, who became his patrons. The span of his career, from the 1920s to the 1970s, is reflected in the styles of his work, ranging from Nordic Classicism of the early work, to a rational International Style Modernism during the 1930s to a more organic modernist style from the 1940s onwards.
His architectural work, throughout his entire career, is characterized by a concern for design as Gesamtkunstwerk---a *total work of art* in which he, together with his first wife Aino Aalto, would design not only the building but the interior surfaces, furniture, lamps, and glassware as well. His furniture designs are considered Scandinavian Modern, an aesthetic reflected in their elegant simplification and concern for materials, especially wood, but also in Aalto\'s technical innovations, which led him to receiving patents for various manufacturing processes, such as those used to produce bent wood. As a designer he is celebrated as a forerunner of midcentury modernism in design; his invention of bent plywood furniture had a profound impact on the aesthetics of Charles and Ray Eames and George Nelson. The Alvar Aalto Museum, designed by Aalto himself, is located in what is regarded as his home city, Jyväskylä.
The entry for him on the Museum of Modern Art website notes his \"remarkable synthesis of romantic and pragmatic ideas,\" adding
> His work reflects a deep desire to humanize architecture through an unorthodox handling of form and materials that was both rational and intuitive. Influenced by the so-called International Style modernism (or functionalism, as it was called in Finland) and his acquaintance with leading modernists in Europe, including Swedish architect Erik Gunnar Asplund and many of the artists and architects associated with the Bauhaus, Aalto created designs that had a profound impact on the trajectory of modernism before and after World War II.
## Biography
### Life
Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto was born in Kuortane, Finland. His father, Johan Henrik Aalto, was a Finnish-speaking land-surveyor and his mother, Selma Matilda \"Selly\" (née Hackstedt) was a Swedish-speaking postmistress. When Aalto was 5 years old, the family moved to Alajärvi, and from there to Jyväskylä in Central Finland.
He studied at the Jyväskylä Lyceum school, where he completed his basic education in 1916, and took drawing lessons from local artist Jonas Heiska. In 1916, he then enrolled to study architecture at the Helsinki University of Technology. His studies were interrupted by the Finnish Civil War, in which he fought. He fought on the side of the *White Army* and fought at the Battle of Länkipohja and the Battle of Tampere.
He built his first piece of architecture while a student; a house for his parents at Alajärvi. Later, he continued his education, graduating in 1921. In the summer of 1922 he began military service, finishing at Hamina reserve officer training school, and was promoted to reserve second lieutenant in June 1923.
In 1920, while a student, Aalto made his first trip abroad, travelling via Stockholm to Gothenburg, where he briefly found work with architect Arvid Bjerke. In 1922, he accomplished his first independent piece at the Industrial Exposition in Tampere. In 1923, he returned to Jyväskylä, where he opened an architectural office under the name \'Alvar Aalto, Architect and Monumental Artist\'. At that time he wrote articles for the Jyväskylä newspaper *Sisä-Suomi* under the pseudonym Remus. During this time, he designed a number of small single-family houses in Jyväskylä, and the office\'s workload steadily increased.
On 6 October 1924, Aalto married architect Aino Marsio. Their honeymoon in Italy was Aalto\'s first trip there, though Aino had previously made a study trip there. The latter trip together sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the Mediterranean region that remained important to Aalto for life.
On their return they continued with several local projects, notably the Jyväskylä Worker\'s Club, which incorporated a number of motifs which they had studied during their trip, most notably the decorations of the Festival hall modelled on the Rucellai Sepulchre in Florence by Leon Battista Alberti. After winning the architecture competition for the Southwest Finland Agricultural Cooperative building in 1927, the Aaltos moved their office to Turku. They had made contact with the city\'s most progressive architect, Erik Bryggman before moving. They began collaborating with him, most notably on the Turku Fair of 1928--29. Aalto\'s biographer, Göran Schildt, claimed that Bryggman was the only architect with whom Aalto cooperated as an equal. With an increasing quantity of work in the Finnish capital, the Aaltos\' office moved again in 1933 to Helsinki.
The Aaltos designed and built a joint house-office (1935--36) for themselves in Munkkiniemi, Helsinki, but later (1954--56) had a purpose-built office erected in the same neighbourhood -- now the former is a \"home museum\" and the latter the premises of the Alvar Aalto Academy. In 1926, the young Aaltos designed and had built for themselves a summer cottage in Alajärvi, Villa Flora.
Aino and Alvar had two children, a daughter, Johanna \"Hanni\" (married surname Alanen; born 1925), and a son, Hamilkar Aalto (born 1928). Aino Aalto died of cancer in 1949.
In 1952, Aalto married architect Elissa Mäkiniemi (died 1994). In 1952, he designed and built a summer cottage, the so-called Experimental House, for himself and his second wife, now Elissa Aalto, in Muuratsalo in Central Finland. Alvar Aalto died on 11 May 1976, in Helsinki, and is buried in the Hietaniemi cemetery in Helsinki. Elissa Aalto became the director of the practice, running the office from 1976 to 1994. In 1978, the Museum of Finnish Architecture in Helsinki arranged a major exhibition of Aalto\'s works.
## Architecture career {#architecture_career}
### Early career: classicism {#early_career_classicism}
Although he is sometimes regarded as among the first and most influential architects of Nordic modernism, closer examination reveals that Aalto (while a pioneer in Finland) closely followed and had personal contacts with other pioneers in Sweden, in particular Gunnar Asplund and Sven Markelius. What they and many others of that generation in the Nordic countries shared was a classical education and an approach to classical architecture that historians now call Nordic Classicism. It was a style that had been a reaction to the previous dominant style of National Romanticism before moving, in the late 1920s, towards Modernism.
Upon returning to Jyväskylä in 1923 to establish his own architect\'s office, Aalto designed several single-family homes designed in the style of Nordic Classicism. For example, the manor-like house for his mother\'s cousin Terho Manner in Töysa (1923), a summer villa for the Jyväskylä chief constable (also from 1923) and the Alatalo farmhouse in Tarvaala (1924). During this period he completed his first public buildings, the Jyväskylä Workers\' Club in 1925, the Jyväskylä Defence Corps Building in 1926 and the Seinäjoki Civil Guard House building in 1924--29. He entered several architectural competitions for prestigious state public buildings, in Finland and abroad. This included two competitions for the Finnish Parliament building in 1923 and 1924, the extension to the University of Helsinki in 1931, and the building to house the League of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1926--27.
Aalto\'s first church design to be completed, Muurame church, illustrates his transition from Nordic Classicism to Functionalism.
This was the period when Aalto was most prolific in his writings, with articles for professional journals and newspapers. Among his most well-known essays from this period are \"Urban culture\" (1924), \"Temple baths on Jyväskylä ridge\" (1925), \"Abbé Coignard\'s sermon\" (1925), and \"From doorstep to living room\" (1926).
### Early career: functionalism {#early_career_functionalism}
The shift in Aalto\'s design approach from classicism to modernism is epitomised by the Viipuri Library in Vyborg (1927--35), which went through a transformation from an originally classical competition entry proposal to the completed high-modernist building. His humanistic approach is in full evidence in the library: the interior displays natural materials, warm colours, and undulating lines. Due to problems related to financing, compounded by a change of site, the Viipuri Library project lasted eight years. During that time, Aalto designed the Standard Apartment Building (1928--29) in Turku, the Turun Sanomat Building (1929--30), and the Paimio Sanatorium (1929--32), which he designed in collaboration with his first wife Aino Aalto. A number of factors contributed to Aalto\'s shift towards modernism: his increased familiarity with international trends, facilitated by his travels throughout Europe; the opportunity to experiment with concrete prefabrication in the Standard Apartment Building; the cutting-edge Le Corbusier-inspired formal language of the Turun Sanomat Building; and Aalto\'s application of both in the Paimio Sanatorium and in the ongoing design for the library. Although the Turun Sanomat Building and Paimio Sanatorium are comparatively pure modernist works, they carried the seeds of his questioning of such an orthodox modernist approach and a move to a more daring, synthetic attitude. It has been pointed out that the planning principle for Paimio Sanatorium -- the splayed wings -- was indebted to the Zonnestraal Sanatorium (1925--31) by Jan Duiker, which Aalto visited while it was under construction. While these early Functionalist bear hallmarks of influences from Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and other key modernist figures of central Europe, Aalto nevertheless started to show his individuality in a departure from such norms with the introduction of organic references.
Through Sven Markelius, Aalto became a member of the Congres Internationaux d\'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), attending the second congress in Frankfurt in 1929 and the fourth congress in Athens in 1933, where he established a close friendship with László Moholy-Nagy, Sigfried Giedion, and Philip Morton Shand. It was during this time that he closely followed the work of the main force driving the new modernism, Le Corbusier, visiting him in his Paris office several times in the following years.
It was not until the completion of the Paimio Sanatorium (1932) and Viipuri Library (1935) that Aalto first achieved world attention in architecture. His reputation grew in the US following the invitation to hold a retrospective exhibition of his works at MOMA in New York in 1938. (This was his first visit to the States.) The exhibition, which later went on a 12-city tour of the country, was a landmark: Aalto was the second-ever architect -- after Le Corbusier -- to have a solo exhibition at the museum. His reputation grew in the US following the critical reception of his design for the Finnish Pavilion at the 1939 New York World\'s Fair, described by Frank Lloyd Wright as a \"work of genius\". It could be said that Aalto\'s international reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion\'s influential book on Modernist architecture, *Space, Time, and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition* (1949), in which Aalto received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of Aalto, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life, and even national characteristics, declaring that \"Finland is with Aalto wherever he goes.\"
### Mid career: experimentation {#mid_career_experimentation}
During the 1930s Alvar spent some time experimenting with laminated wood, sculpture and abstract relief, characterized by irregular curved forms. Utilizing this knowledge, he was able to solve technical problems concerning the flexibility of wood while at the same time working out spatial issues in his designs. Aalto\'s early experiments with wood and his move away from a purist modernism would be tested in built form with the commission to design Villa Mairea (1939) in Noormarkku, the luxury home of young industrialist couple Harry and Maire Gullichsen. It was Maire Gullichsen who acted as the main client, and she worked closely not only with Alvar but also with Aino Aalto on the design, encouraging them to be more daring in their work. The building forms a U-shape around a central inner \'garden\' whose central feature is a kidney-shaped swimming pool. Adjacent to the pool is a sauna executed in a rustic style, alluding to both Finnish and Japanese precedents. The design of the house is a synthesis of numerous stylistic influences, from traditional Finnish vernacular to purist modernism, as well as influences from English and Japanese architecture. While the house is clearly intended for a wealthy family, Aalto nevertheless argued that it was also an experiment that would prove useful in the design of mass housing.
His increased fame led to offers and commissions outside Finland. In 1941, he accepted an invitation as a visiting professor to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US. During the Second World War, he returned to Finland to direct the Reconstruction Office. After the war, he returned to MIT, where he designed the student dormitory Baker House, completed in 1949. The dormitory flanked the Charles River, and its undulating form provided maximum view and ventilation for each resident. This was the first building of Aalto\'s redbrick period. Originally used in Baker House to signify the Ivy League university tradition, Aalto went on to use it in a number of key buildings after his return to Finland, most notably in several of the buildings in the new Helsinki University of Technology campus (starting in 1950), Säynätsalo Town Hall (1952), Helsinki Pensions Institute (1954), Helsinki House of Culture (1958), as well as in his own summer house, the Experimental House in Muuratsalo (1957).
In the 1950s Aalto immersed himself in sculpting, exploring wood, bronze, marble, and mixed media. Among the notable works from this period is his 1960 memorial to the Battle of Suomussalmi. Located on the battlefield, it consists of a leaning bronze pillar on a pedestal.
### Mature career: monumentalism {#mature_career_monumentalism}
Foremost among Aalto\'s work from the early 1960s until his death in 1976 were his projects in Helsinki, in particular the huge town plan for the void in the centre of Helsinki adjacent to Töölö Bay and the vast railway yards, an area marked on the edges by significant buildings such as the National Museum and the main railway station, both by Eliel Saarinen. In his town plan, Aalto proposed a line of separate marble-clad buildings fronting the bay, which would house various cultural institutions, including a concert hall, opera, museum of architecture, and headquarters for the Finnish Academy. The scheme also extended into the Kamppi district with a series of tall office blocks. Aalto first presented his vision in 1961, but it went through various modifications during the early \'60s. Only two fragments of the overall plan were realized: the Finlandia Hall concert hall (1976) fronting on Töölö Bay and an office building in the Kamppi district for the Helsinki Electricity Company (1975). Aalto also employed the Miesian formal language of geometric grids used in those buildings for other sites in Helsinki, including the Enso-Gutzeit headquarters building (1962), the Academic Bookstore (1962), and the SYP Bank building (1969).
Following Aalto\'s death in 1976, his office continued to operate under the direction of his widow Elissa, who oversaw the completion of works already designed (to some extent), among them the Jyväskylä City Theatre and Essen opera house. Since the death of Elissa Aalto, the office has continued to operate as the Alvar Aalto Academy, giving advice on the restoration of Aalto buildings and organizing the practice\'s vast archives.
## Furniture career {#furniture_career}
Although Aalto was famous for his architecture, his furniture designs were admired and are still popular today. He studied with the architect-designer Josef Hoffmann at the Wiener Werkstätte(engl.: \"Vienna Workshop\") and worked, for a time, under Eliel Saarinen. He also drew inspiration from Gebrüder Thonet. During the late 1920s and 1930s, he worked closely with Aino Aalto on his furniture designs, a focus due in part to his decision to design many of the individual furniture pieces and lamps for the Paimio Sanatorium. Of particular significance was the Aaltos\' experimentation in bent plywood chairs, most notably the so-called Paimio chair, designed for tuberculosis patients, and the Model 60 stacking stool. The Aaltos, together with visual arts promoter Maire Gullichsen and art historian Nils-Gustav Hahl, founded the Artek company in 1935, ostensibly to sell Aalto products but which also imported pieces by other designers. Aalto became the first furniture designer to use the cantilever principle in chair designs using wood.
## Awards
Aalto\'s awards included Honorary Royal Designer for Industry from the Royal Society of Arts in 1947, the Prince Eugen Medal in 1954, the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1957 and the Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects in 1963. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1957. He also was a member of the Academy of Finland, and was its president from 1963 to 1968. From 1925 to 1956 he was a member of the Congrès International d\'Architecture Moderne. In 1960 he received an honorary doctorate at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU).
## Works
Aalto\'s career spans the changes in style from (Nordic Classicism) to purist International Style Modernism to a more personal, synthetic, and idiosyncratic Modernism. Aalto\'s wide field of design activity ranges from large-scale projects such as city planning and architecture to more intimate, human-scale work in interior design, furniture and glassware design, and painting. It has been estimated that during his entire career Aalto designed over 500 individual buildings, approximately 300 of which were built. The vast majority of them are in Finland. He also has a few buildings in France, Germany, Italy, and the US.
Aalto\'s work with wood was influenced by early Scandinavian architects. His experiments and bold departures from aesthetic norms brought attention to his ability to make wood do things not previously done. His techniques in the way he cut beech wood, for example, and his ability to use plywood as a structural element while at the same time exploiting its aesthetic properties, were at once technically innovative and artistically inspired. Other examples of his boundary-pushing sensibility include the vertical placement of rough-hewn logs at his pavilion at the Lapua expo, a design element that evoked a medieval barricade. At the orchestra platform at Turku and the Paris expo at the World Fair, he used varying sizes and shapes of planks. Also at Paris (and at Villa Mairea), he utilized birch boards in a vertical arrangement. His Vyborg Library, built in what was then Viipuri (it became Vyborg after Soviet annexation in 1944), is acclaimed for its stunning ceiling, with its undulating waves of red-hearted pine (which grows in the region ). In his roofing, he created massive spans (155-foot at the covered stadium at Otaniemi), all without tie rods. In his stairway at Villa Mairea, he evokes the feeling of a natural forest by binding beech wood with withes into columns.
Aalto claimed that his paintings were not made as individual artworks but as part of his process of architectural design, and many of his small-scale \"sculptural\" experiments with wood led to later larger architectural details and forms. These experiments also led to a number of patents: for example, he invented a new form of laminated bent-plywood furniture in 1932 (which was patented in 1933). His experimental method had been influenced by his meetings with various members of the Bauhaus design school, especially László Moholy-Nagy, whom he first met in 1930. Aalto\'s furniture was exhibited in London in 1935, to great critical acclaim. To cope with the consumer demand, Aalto, together with his wife Aino, Maire Gullichsen, and Nils-Gustav Hahl founded the company Artek that same year. Aalto glassware (Aino as well as Alvar) is manufactured by Iittala.
Aalto\'s \'High Stool\' and \'Stool E60\' (manufactured by Artek) are currently used in Apple Stores across the world to serve as seating for customers. Finished in black lacquer, the stools are used to seat customers at the \'Genius Bar\' and also in other areas of the store at times when seating is required for a product workshop or special event. Aalto was also influential in bringing modern art to the attention of the Finnish people, in particular the work of his friends Alexander Milne Calder and Fernand Léger.
### Significant buildings {#significant_buildings}
- 1921--1923: Bell tower of Kauhajärvi Church, Lapua, Finland
- 1924--1926: Seinäjoki Civil Guard House, Seinäjoki, Finland
- 1924--1928: Municipal hospital, Alajärvi, Finland
- 1926--1929: Defence Corps Building, Jyväskylä, Finland
- 1927--1928: South-West Finland Agricultural Cooperative building, Turku, Finland
- 1927--1935: Municipal library, Viipuri, Finland (now Vyborg, Russia)
- 1928--1929, 1930: *Turun Sanomat* newspaper offices, Turku, Finland
- 1928--1933: Paimio Sanatorium, Tuberculosis sanatorium and staff housing, Paimio, Finland
- 1931: Toppila paper mill in Oulu, Finland
- 1931: Central University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia (former Yugoslavia)
- 1932: Villa Tammekann, Tartu, Estonia
- 1934: Corso theatre, restaurant interior, Zürich, Switzerland
- 1936--1939: Ahlstrom Sunila Pulp Mill, Housing, and Town Plan, Kotka, Finland
- 1937--1939: Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, Finland
- 1939: Finnish Pavilion, at the 1939 New York World\'s Fair
- 1945: Sawmill at Varkaus, Finland
- 1947--1948: Baker House, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
- 1949--1966: Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
- 1949--1952: Säynätsalo Town Hall, Säynätsalo (now part of Jyväskylä), Finland; 1949 competition, built 1952
- 1950--1957: National Pension Institution office building, Helsinki, Finland
- 1951--1971: University of Jyväskylä various buildings and facilities on the university campus, Jyväskylä, Finland
- 1952--1958: House of Culture, Helsinki, Finland
- 1953: The Experimental House, Muuratsalo, Finland
- 1953--1955: Rautatalo office building, Helsinki, Finland
- 1956--1958: Home for Louis Carré, Bazoches, France
- 1956--1958: Church of the Three Crosses, Vuoksenniska, Imatra, Finland
- 1957--1967: city center (library, theatre, City Hall, Lakeuden Risti Church and central administrative buildings), Seinäjoki, Finland
- 1958: Post and telegraph office, Baghdad, Iraq
- 1958--1972: KUNSTEN Museum of Modern Art Aalborg, Aalborg, Denmark
- 1959--1962: Community Centre, Wolfsburg, Germany
- 1959--1962: Church of the Holy Ghost (Heilig-Geist-Gemeindezentrum), Wolfsburg, Germany
- 1959--1962: Enso-Gutzeit headquarters, Helsinki, Finland
- 1961--1975: Lappia Hall performing arts and conference venue, Rovaniemi, Finland; part of the city\'s \'Aalto Centre\'
- 1962: Aalto-Hochhaus, Bremen, Germany
- 1964--1965: Kaufmann Conference Center at the Institute of International Education, New York City, U.S.
- 1965: Rovaniemi library, Rovaniemi, Finland
- 1962--1971: Finlandia Hall, Helsinki, Finland
- 1963--1968: Church of St Stephen (Stephanus Kirche), Detmerode, Wolfsburg, Germany
- 1963--1965: Building for Västmanland-Dala nation, Uppsala, Sweden
- 1967--1970: Library at the Mount Angel Abbey, St. Benedict, Salem, Oregon, U.S.
- 1965--1968: Nordic House, Reykjavík, Iceland
- 1966: Church of the Assumption of Mary, Riola di Vergato, Italy (built 1975--1978)
- 1973: Alvar Aalto Museum, a.k.a. Taidemuseo, Jyväskylä, Finland
- 1970--1973: Sähkötalo, Helsinki, Finland
- 1978 (completed): Ristinkirkko, Lahti, Finland
- 1959--1988: Essen opera house, Essen, Germany
- 1986: Rovaniemi city hall, Rovaniemi, Finland
### Furniture and glassware {#furniture_and_glassware}
**Chairs**
- 1932: Paimio Chair
- 1933: Model 60 stacking stool
- 1933: Four-legged Stool E60
- 1935--36: Armchair 404 (a/k/a/ Zebra Tank Chair)
- 1939: Armchair 406
**Lamps**
- 1954: Floor lamp A805
- 1959: Floor lamp A810
**Vases**
- 1936: Aalto Vase
## Critique of Aalto\'s architecture {#critique_of_aaltos_architecture}
As mentioned above, Aalto\'s international reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion\'s influential book on Modernist architecture, *Space, Time and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition* (1949), in which Aalto received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of Aalto, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life and even national characteristics, declaring that \"Finland is with Aalto wherever he goes.\"
More recently, however, some architecture critics and historians have questioned Aalto\'s influence on the historical canon. The Italian Marxist architecture historians Manfredo Tafuri and Francesco Dal Co contend that Aalto\'s \"historical significance has perhaps been rather exaggerated; with Aalto we are outside of the great themes that have made the course of contemporary architecture so dramatic. The qualities of his works have a meaning only as masterful distractions, not subject to reproduction outside the remote reality \[sic\] in which they have their roots.\" At the heart of their critique was the perception of Aalto\'s work as unsuited to the urban context: \"Essentially, his architecture is not appropriate to urban typologies.\"
At the other end of the political spectrum (though similarly concerned with the appropriateness of Aalto\'s formal language), the American cultural theorist and architectural historian Charles Jencks singled out his Pensions Institute as an example of what he termed the architect\'s \"soft paternalism\": \"Conceived as a fragmented mass to break up the feeling of bureaucracy, it succeeds all too well in being humane and killing the pensioner with kindness. The forms are familiar -- red brick and ribbon-strip windows broken by copper and bronze elements -- all carried through with a literal-mindedness that borders on the soporific.\"
During his lifetime, Aalto faced criticisms from his fellow architects in Finland, most notably Kirmo Mikkola and Juhani Pallasmaa. By the last decade of Aalto\'s life, his work was seen as unfashionably individualistic at a time when the opposing tendencies of rationalism and constructivism -- often championed under left-wing politics -- argued for anonymous, aggressively non-aesthetic architecture. Of Aalto\'s late works, Mikkola wrote, \"Aalto has moved to \[a\] baroque line\...\"
## Memorials
Aalto has been commemorated in a number of ways:
- Alvar Aalto is the eponym of the Alvar Aalto Medal, an international architecture award.
- Aalto was featured in the 50 mk note in the last series of the Finnish markka (before its replacement by the Euro in 2002).
- The centenary of Aalto\'s birth in 1998 was marked in Finland not only by several books and exhibitions, but also by the promotion of specially bottled red and white Aalto Wine and a specially designed cupcake.
- In 1976, the year of his death, Aalto was commemorated on a Finnish postage stamp.
- Piazza Alvar Aalto, a square named after Aalto, can be found in the Porta Nuova business district of Milan, Italy.
- Aalto University, a Finnish university formed by merging Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki School of Economics and TaiK in 2010, is named after Alvar Aalto.
- An Alvar Aallon katu (Alvar Aalto Street) can be found in five different Finnish cities: Helsinki, Jyväskylä, Oulu, Kotka and Seinäjoki.
- In 2017, the Alvar Aalto Museum launched Alvar Aalto Cities, that is, a network of cities containing buildings by Alvar Aalto. The objective of the network is to increase awareness of Aalto\'s work both in Finland and abroad. It is hoped that by combining forces on communications and marketing, the visibility and accessibility of exhibitions, tourist attractions and events will be improved. To date, the network city members are: Aalborg, Alajärvi, Espoo, Eura, Hamina, Helsinki, Imatra, Jyväskylä, Järvenpää, Kotka, Kouvola, Lahti, Oulu, Paimio, Pori, Raseborg, Rovaniemi, Seinäjoki, Turku, Vantaa and Varkaus. It is estimated that in total there would be 40 cities worldwide that would qualify as an Alvar Aalto City.
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2,014 |
Atomic semantics
|
**Atomic semantics** is a type of guarantee provided by a data register shared by several processors in a parallel machine or in a network of computers working together. Atomic semantics are very strong. An atomic register provides strong guarantees even when there is concurrency and failures.
A read/write register R stores a value and is accessed by two basic operations: read and write(v). A read returns the value stored in R and write(v) changes the value stored in R to v. A register is called atomic if it satisfies the two following properties:
1\) Each invocation op of a read or write operation:
•Must appear as if it were executed at a single point τ(op) in time.
•τ (op) works as follow: τb(op) ≤ τ (op) ≤ τe(op): where τb(op) and τe(op) indicate the time when the operation op begins and ends.
•If op1 ≠ op2, then τ (op1)≠τ (op2)
2\) Each read operation returns the value written by the last write operation before the read, in the sequence where all operations are ordered by their τ values.
**Atomic/Linearizable register:**
Termination: when a node is correct, sooner or later each read and write operation will complete.
**Safety Property** (Linearization points for read and write and failed operations):
Read operation:It appears as if happened at all nodes at some times between the invocation and response time.
Write operation: Similar to read operation, it appears as if happened at all nodes at some times between the invocation and response time.
Failed operation(The atomic term comes from this notion):It appears as if it is completed at every single node or it never happened at any node.
Example : We know that an atomic register is one that is linearizable to a sequential safe register.
The following picture shows where we should put the linearization point for each operation:
An atomic register could be defined for a variable with a single writer but multi- readers (SWMR), single-writer/single-reader (SWSR), or multi-writer/multi-reader (MWMR). Here is an example of a multi-reader multi-writer atomic register which is accessed by three processes (P1, P2, P3). Note that R. read() → v means that the corresponding read operation returns v, which is the value of the register. Therefore, the following execution of the register R could satisfies the definition of the atomic registers: R.write(1), R.read()→1, R.write(3), R.write(2), R.read()→2, R.read()→2.
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2,015 |
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
|
**Antarctic Circumpolar Current** (**ACC**) is an ocean current that flows clockwise (as seen from the South Pole) from west to east around Antarctica. An alternative name for the ACC is the **West Wind Drift**. The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and has a mean transport estimated at 137 ± 7 Sverdrups (Sv, million m^3^/s), or possibly even higher, making it the largest ocean current. The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with Antarctica and this keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica, enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet.
Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence, where the cold Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic, creating a zone of upwelling nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and krill, and resultant food chains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins, albatrosses, and a wealth of other species.
The ACC has been known to sailors for centuries; it greatly speeds up any travel from west to east, but makes sailing extremely difficult from east to west, although this is mostly due to the prevailing westerly winds. Jack London\'s story \"Make Westing\" and the circumstances preceding the mutiny on the *Bounty* poignantly illustrate the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round Cape Horn westbound on the clipper ship route from New York to California. The eastbound clipper route, which is the fastest sailing route around the world, follows the ACC around three continental capes -- Cape Agulhas (Africa), South East Cape (Australia), and Cape Horn (South America).
The current creates the Ross and Weddell Gyres.
## Structure
The ACC connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and serves as a principal pathway of exchange among them. The current is strongly constrained by landform and bathymetric features. To trace it starting arbitrarily at South America, it flows through the Drake Passage between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula and then is split by the Scotia Arc to the east, with a shallow warm branch flowing to the north in the Falkland Current and a deeper branch passing through the Arc more to the east before also turning to the north. Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current first retroflects the Agulhas Current to form the Agulhas Return Current before it is split by the Kerguelen Plateau, and then moving northward again. Deflection is also seen as it passes over the mid-ocean ridge in the Southeast Pacific.
### Fronts
The current is accompanied by three fronts: the Subantarctic front (SAF), the Polar front (PF), and the Southern ACC front (SACC). Furthermore, the waters of the Southern Ocean are separated from the warmer and saltier subtropical waters by the subtropical front (STF).
The northern boundary of the ACC is defined by the northern edge of the SAF, this being the most northerly water to pass through Drake Passage and therefore be circumpolar. Much of the ACC transport is carried in this front, which is defined as the latitude at which a subsurface salinity minimum or a thick layer of unstratified Subantarctic mode water first appears, allowed by temperature dominating density stratification. Still further south lies the PF, which is marked by a transition to very cold, relatively fresh, Antarctic Surface Water at the surface. Here a temperature minimum is allowed by salinity dominating density stratification, due to the lower temperatures. Farther south still is the SACC, which is determined as the southernmost extent of Circumpolar deep water (temperature of about 2 °C at 400 m). This water mass flows along the shelfbreak of the western Antarctic Peninsula and thus marks the most southerly water flowing through Drake Passage and therefore circumpolar. The bulk of the transport is carried in the middle two fronts.
The total transport of the ACC at Drake Passage is estimated to be around 135 Sv, or about 135 times the transport of all the world\'s rivers combined. There is a relatively small addition of flow in the Indian Ocean, with the transport south of Tasmania reaching around 147 Sv, at which point the current is probably the largest on the planet.
## Dynamics
The circumpolar current is driven by the strong westerly winds in the latitudes of the Southern Ocean.
In latitudes where there are continents, winds blowing on light surface water can simply pile up light water against these continents. But in the Southern Ocean, the momentum imparted to the surface waters cannot be offset in this way. There are different theories on how the Circumpolar Current balances the momentum imparted by the winds. The increasing eastward momentum imparted by the winds causes water parcels to drift outward from the axis of the Earth\'s rotation (in other words, northward) as a result of the Coriolis force. This northward Ekman transport is balanced by a southward, pressure-driven flow below the depths of the major ridge systems. Some theories connect these flows directly, implying that there is significant upwelling of dense deep waters within the Southern Ocean, transformation of these waters into light surface waters, and a transformation of waters in the opposite direction to the north. Such theories link the magnitude of the Circumpolar Current with the global thermohaline circulation, particularly the properties of the North Atlantic.
Alternatively, ocean eddies, the oceanic equivalent of atmospheric storms, or the large-scale meanders of the Circumpolar Current may directly transport momentum downward in the water column. This is because such flows can produce a net southward flow in the troughs and a net northward flow over the ridges without requiring any transformation of density. In practice both the thermohaline and the eddy/meander mechanisms are likely to be important.
The current flows at a rate of about 4 km/h over the Macquarie Ridge south of New Zealand. The ACC varies with time. Evidence of this is the Antarctic Circumpolar Wave, a periodic oscillation that affects the climate of much of the southern hemisphere. There is also the Antarctic oscillation, which involves changes in the location and strength of Antarctic winds. Trends in the Antarctic Oscillation have been hypothesized to account for an increase in the transport of the Circumpolar Current over the past two decades.
## Formation
Published estimates of the onset of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current vary, but it is commonly considered to have started at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. The isolation of Antarctica and formation of the ACC occurred with the openings of the Tasmanian Passage and the Drake Passage, following the fragmentation of the Antarctic land bridge. The Tasmanian Seaway separates East Antarctica and Australia, and is reported to have opened to water circulation 33.5 million years ago (Ma). The timing of the opening of the Drake Passage, between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula, is more disputed. Tectonic and sediment evidence show that it could have been open as early as pre-34 Ma; estimates of the opening of the Drake passage are between 20 and 40 Ma. The isolation of Antarctica by the current is credited by many researchers with causing the glaciation of Antarctica and global cooling in the Eocene epoch. Oceanic models have shown that the opening of these two passages limited polar heat convergence and caused a cooling of sea surface temperatures by several degrees; other models have shown that CO~2~ levels also played a significant role in the glaciation of Antarctica.
## Phytoplankton
Antarctic sea ice cycles seasonally, in February--March the amount of sea ice is lowest, and in August--September the sea ice is at its greatest extent. Ice levels have been monitored by satellite since 1973. Upwelling of deep water under the sea ice brings substantial amounts of nutrients. As the ice melts, the melt water provides stability and the critical depth is well below the mixing depth, which allows for a positive net primary production. As the sea ice recedes epontic algae dominate the first phase of the bloom, and a strong bloom dominate by diatoms follows the ice melt south.
Another phytoplankton bloom occurs more to the north near the Antarctic Convergence, here nutrients are present from thermohaline circulation. Phytoplankton blooms are dominated by diatoms and grazed by copepods in the open ocean, and by krill closer to the continent. Diatom production continues through the summer, and populations of krill are sustained, bringing large numbers of cetaceans, cephalopods, seals, birds, and fish to the area.
Phytoplankton blooms are believed to be limited by irradiance in the austral (southern hemisphere) spring, and by biologically available iron in the summer. Much of the biology in the area occurs along the major fronts of the current, the Subtropical, Subantarctic, and the Antarctic Polar fronts, these are areas associated with well defined temperature changes. Size and distribution of phytoplankton are also related to fronts. Microphytoplankton (\>20 μm) are found at fronts and at sea ice boundaries, while nanophytoplankton (\<20 μm) are found between fronts.
Studies of phytoplankton stocks in the southern sea have shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is dominated by diatoms, while the Weddell Sea has abundant coccolithophorids and silicoflagellates. Surveys of the SW Indian Ocean have shown phytoplankton group variation based on their location relative to the Polar Front, with diatoms dominating South of the front, and dinoflagellates and flagellates in higher populations North of the front.
Some research has been conducted on Antarctic phytoplankton as a carbon sink. Areas of open water left from ice melt are good areas for phytoplankton blooms. The phytoplankton takes carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. As the blooms die and sink, the carbon can be stored in sediments for thousands of years. This natural carbon sink is estimated to remove 3.5 million tonnes from the ocean each year. 3.5 million tonnes of carbon taken from the ocean and atmosphere is equivalent to 12.8 million tonnes of carbon dioxide.
## Studies
An expedition in May 2008 by 19 scientists studied the geology and biology of eight Macquarie Ridge sea mounts, as well as the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to investigate the effects of climate change of the Southern Ocean. The circumpolar current merges the waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans and carries up to 150 times the volume of water flowing in all of the world\'s rivers. The study found that any damage on the cold-water corals nourished by the current will have a long-lasting effect. After studying the circumpolar current it is clear that it strongly influences regional and global climate as well as underwater biodiversity. The subject has been characterized recently as \"the spectral peak of the global extra-tropical circulation at ≈ 10\^4 kilometers\".
The current helps preserve wooden shipwrecks by preventing wood-boring \"ship worms\" from reaching targets such as Ernest Shackleton\'s ship, the *Endurance*.
The \"State of the Cryosphere\" report found, that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current became weaker. By 2050 it expected to lose 20% of its strength with \"widespread impacts on ocean circulation and climate.\" The Weddell Sea Bottom Water has lost 30% of its volume in the latest 32 years, and the Antarctic Bottom Water is expected to shrink. This will impact ocean circulation, nutrients, heat content and carbon sequestration. UNESCO mentions that the report in the first time \"notes a growing scientific consensus that melting Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, among other factors, may be slowing important ocean currents at both poles, with potentially dire consequences for a much colder northern Europe and greater sea-level rise along the U.S. East Coast.\" The findings were bolstered by a 2025 study published in Environmental Research Letters.
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A. J. Ayer
|
**Sir Alfred Jules** \"**Freddie**\" **Ayer** `{{post-nominals|country=GBR|FBA}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{IPAc-en|ɛər}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|AIR}}`{=mediawiki}; 29 October 1910 -- 27 June 1989) was an English philosopher known for his promotion of logical positivism, particularly in his books *Language, Truth, and Logic* (1936) and *The Problem of Knowledge* (1956).
Ayer was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, after which he studied the philosophy of logical positivism at the University of Vienna. From 1933 to 1940 he lectured on philosophy at Christ Church, Oxford.
During the Second World War Ayer was a Special Operations Executive and MI6 agent.
Ayer was Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College London from 1946 until 1959, after which he returned to Oxford to become Wykeham Professor of Logic at New College. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1951 to 1952 and knighted in 1970. He was known for his advocacy of humanism, and was the second president of the British Humanist Association (now known as Humanists UK).
Ayer was president of the Homosexual Law Reform Society for a time; he remarked, \"as a notorious heterosexual I could never be accused of feathering my own nest.\"
## Life
Ayer was born in St John\'s Wood, in north west London, to Jules Louis Cyprien Ayer and Reine (née Citroen), wealthy parents from continental Europe. His mother was from the Dutch-Jewish family that founded the Citroën car company in France; his father was a Swiss Calvinist financier who worked for the Rothschild family, including for their bank and as secretary to Alfred Rothschild.
Ayer was educated at Ascham St Vincent\'s School, a former boarding preparatory school for boys in the seaside town of Eastbourne in Sussex, where he started boarding at the relatively early age of seven for reasons to do with the First World War, and at Eton College, where he was a King\'s Scholar. At Eton Ayer first became known for his characteristic bravado and precocity. Though primarily interested in his intellectual pursuits, he was very keen on sports, particularly rugby, and reputedly played the Eton Wall Game very well. In the final examinations at Eton, Ayer came second in his year, and first in classics. In his final year, as a member of Eton\'s senior council, he unsuccessfully campaigned for the abolition of corporal punishment at the school. He won a classics scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford. He graduated with a BA with first-class honours.
After graduating from Oxford, Ayer spent a year in Vienna, returned to England and published his first book, *Language, Truth and Logic*, in 1936. This first exposition in English of logical positivism as newly developed by the Vienna Circle, made Ayer at age 26 the *enfant terrible* of British philosophy. As a newly famous intellectual, he played a prominent role in the Oxford by-election campaign of 1938. Ayer campaigned first for the Labour candidate Patrick Gordon Walker, and then for the joint Labour-Liberal \"Independent Progressive\" candidate Sandie Lindsay, who ran on an anti-appeasement platform against the Conservative candidate, Quintin Hogg, who ran as the appeasement candidate. The by-election, held on 27 October 1938, was quite close, with Hogg winning narrowly.
In the Second World War, Ayer served as an officer in the Welsh Guards, chiefly in intelligence (Special Operations Executive (SOE) and MI6). He was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Welsh Guards from the Officer Cadet Training Unit on 21 September 1940.
After the war, Ayer briefly returned to the University of Oxford where he became a fellow and Dean of Wadham College. He then taught philosophy at University College London from 1946 until 1959, during which time he started to appear on radio and television. He was an extrovert and social mixer who liked dancing and attending clubs in London and New York. He was also obsessed with sport: he had played rugby for Eton, and was a noted cricketer and a keen supporter of Tottenham Hotspur football team, where he was for many years a season ticket holder. For an academic, Ayer was an unusually well-connected figure in his time, with close links to \'high society\' and the establishment. Presiding over Oxford high-tables, he is often described as charming, but could also be intimidating.
Ayer was married four times to three women. His first marriage was from 1932 to 1941, to (Grace Isabel) Renée, with whom he had a son`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}allegedly the son of Ayer\'s friend and colleague Stuart Hampshire`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}and a daughter. Renée subsequently married Hampshire. In 1960, Ayer married Alberta Constance (Dee) Wells, with whom he had one son. That marriage was dissolved in 1983, and the same year, Ayer married Vanessa Salmon, the former wife of politician Nigel Lawson. She died in 1985, and in 1989 Ayer remarried Wells, who survived him. He also had a daughter with Hollywood columnist Sheilah Graham Westbrook.
In 1950, Ayer attended the founding meeting of the Congress for Cultural Freedom in West Berlin, though he later said he went only because of the offer of a \"free trip\". He gave a speech on why John Stuart Mill\'s conceptions of liberty and freedom were still valid in the 20th century. Together with the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper, Ayer fought against Arthur Koestler and Franz Borkenau, arguing that they were far too dogmatic and extreme in their anti-communism, in fact proposing illiberal measures in the defence of liberty. Adding to the tension was the location of the congress in West Berlin, together with the fact that the Korean War began on 25 June 1950, the fourth day of the congress, giving a feeling that the world was on the brink of war.
From 1959 to his retirement in 1978, Ayer held the Wykeham Chair, Professor of Logic at Oxford. He was knighted in 1970. After his retirement, Ayer taught or lectured several times in the United States, including as a visiting professor at Bard College in 1987. At a party that same year held by fashion designer Fernando Sanchez, Ayer confronted Mike Tyson, who was forcing himself upon the then little-known model Naomi Campbell. When Ayer demanded that Tyson stop, Tyson reportedly asked, \"Do you know who the fuck I am? I\'m the heavyweight champion of the world\", to which Ayer replied, \"And I am the former Wykeham Professor of Logic. We are both pre-eminent in our field. I suggest that we talk about this like rational men\". Ayer and Tyson then began to talk, allowing Campbell to slip out. Gully Wells, Ayer\'s stepdaughter via Dee Wells, records the same event with some slight variation of detail.
Ayer was also involved in politics, including anti-Vietnam War activism, supporting the Labour Party (and later the Social Democratic Party), chairing the Campaign Against Racial Discrimination in Sport, and serving as president of the Homosexual Law Reform Society.
In 1988, a year before his death, Ayer wrote an article titled \"What I saw when I was dead\", describing an unusual near-death experience after his heart stopped for four minutes as he choked on smoked salmon. Of the experience, he first said that it \"slightly weakened my conviction that my genuine death \... will be the end of me, though I continue to hope that it will be.\" A few weeks later, he revised this, saying, \"what I should have said is that my experiences have weakened, not my belief that there is no life after death, but my inflexible attitude towards that belief\".
Ayer died on 27 June 1989. From 1980 to 1989 he lived at 51 York Street, Marylebone, where a memorial plaque was unveiled on 19 November 1995.
## Philosophical ideas {#philosophical_ideas}
In *Language, Truth and Logic* (1936), Ayer presents the verification principle as the only valid basis for philosophy. Unless logical or empirical verification is possible, statements like \"God exists\" or \"charity is good\" are not true or untrue but meaningless, and may thus be excluded or ignored. Religious language in particular is unverifiable and as such literally nonsense. He also criticises C. A. Mace\'s opinion that metaphysics is a form of intellectual poetry. The stance that a belief in God denotes no verifiable hypothesis is sometimes referred to as igtheism (for example, by Paul Kurtz). In later years, Ayer reiterated that he did not believe in God and began to call himself an atheist. He followed in the footsteps of Bertrand Russell by debating religion with the Jesuit scholar Frederick Copleston.
Ayer\'s version of emotivism divides \"the ordinary system of ethics\" into four classes:
1. \"Propositions that express definitions of ethical terms, or judgements about the legitimacy or possibility of certain definitions\"
2. \"Propositions describing the phenomena of moral experience, and their causes\"
3. \"Exhortations to moral virtue\"
4. \"Actual ethical judgements\"
He focuses on propositions of the first class`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}moral judgements`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}saying that those of the second class belong to science, those of the third are mere commands, and those of the fourth (which are considered normative ethics as opposed to meta-ethics) are too concrete for ethical philosophy.
Ayer argues that moral judgements cannot be translated into non-ethical, empirical terms and thus cannot be verified; in this he agrees with ethical intuitionists. But he differs from intuitionists by discarding appeals to intuition of non-empirical moral truths as \"worthless\" since the intuition of one person often contradicts that of another. Instead, Ayer concludes that ethical concepts are \"mere pseudo-concepts\":
Between 1945 and 1947, together with Russell and George Orwell, Ayer contributed a series of articles to *Polemic*, a short-lived British *Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics* edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater.
Ayer was closely associated with the British humanist movement. He was an Honorary Associate of the Rationalist Press Association from 1947 until his death. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963. In 1965, he became the first president of the Agnostics\' Adoption Society and in the same year succeeded Julian Huxley as president of the British Humanist Association, a post he held until 1970. In 1968 he edited *The Humanist Outlook*, a collection of essays on the meaning of humanism. He was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.
## Works
Ayer is best known for popularising the verification principle, in particular through his presentation of it in *Language, Truth, and Logic*. The principle was at the time at the heart of the debates of the so-called Vienna Circle, which Ayer had visited as a young guest. Others, including the circle\'s leading light, Moritz Schlick, were already writing papers on the issue. Ayer\'s formulation was that a sentence can be meaningful only if it has verifiable empirical import; otherwise, it is either \"analytical\" if tautologous or \"metaphysical\" (i.e. meaningless, or \"literally senseless\"). He started to work on the book at the age of 23 and it was published when he was 26. Ayer\'s philosophical ideas were deeply influenced by those of the Vienna Circle and David Hume. His clear, vibrant and polemical exposition of them makes *Language, Truth and Logic* essential reading on the tenets of logical empiricism; the book is regarded as a classic of 20th-century analytic philosophy and is widely read in philosophy courses around the world. In it, Ayer also proposes that the distinction between a conscious man and an unconscious machine resolves itself into a distinction between \"different types of perceptible behaviour\", an argument that anticipates the Turing test published in 1950 to test a machine\'s capability to demonstrate intelligence.
Ayer wrote two books on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, *Russell and Moore: The Analytic Heritage* (1971) and *Russell* (1972). He also wrote an introductory book on the philosophy of David Hume and a short biography of Voltaire.
Ayer was a strong critic of the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. As a logical positivist, Ayer was in conflict with Heidegger\'s vast, overarching theories of existence. Ayer considered them completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis, and this sort of philosophy an unfortunate strain in modern thought. He considered Heidegger the worst example of such philosophy, which Ayer believed entirely useless. In *Philosophy in the Twentieth Century*, Ayer accuses Heidegger of \"surprising ignorance\" or \"unscrupulous distortion\" and \"what can fairly be described as charlatanism.\"
In 1972--73, Ayer gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of St Andrews, later published as *The Central Questions of Philosophy*. In the book\'s preface, he defends his selection to hold the lectureship on the basis that Lord Gifford wished to promote \"natural theology, in the widest sense of that term\", and that non-believers are allowed to give the lectures if they are \"able reverent men, true thinkers, sincere lovers of and earnest inquirers after truth\". He still believed in the viewpoint he shared with the logical positivists: that large parts of what was traditionally called philosophy`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}including metaphysics, theology and aesthetics`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}were not matters that could be judged true or false, and that it was thus meaningless to discuss them.
In *The Concept of a Person and Other Essays* (1963), Ayer heavily criticised Wittgenstein\'s private language argument.
Ayer\'s sense-data theory in *Foundations of Empirical Knowledge* was famously criticised by fellow Oxonian J. L. Austin in *Sense and Sensibilia*, a landmark 1950s work of ordinary language philosophy. Ayer responded in the essay \"Has Austin Refuted the Sense-datum Theory?\", which can be found in his *Metaphysics and Common Sense* (1969).
## Awards
Ayer was awarded a knighthood as Knight Bachelor in the London Gazette on 1 January 1970.
## Collections
Ayer\'s biographer, Ben Rogers, deposited 7 boxes of research material accumulated through the writing process at University College London in 2007. The material was donated in collaboration with Ayer\'s family.
## Selected publications {#selected_publications}
- 1936, *Language, Truth, and Logic*, London: Gollancz., 2nd ed., with new introduction (1946) `{{oclc|416788667}}`{=mediawiki} `{{ISBN|978-0-14-118604-7}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1936, \"Causation and free will\", *The Aryan Path*.
- 1940, *The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge*, London: Macmillan. `{{oclc|2028651}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1954, *Philosophical Essays*, London: Macmillan. (Essays on freedom, phenomenalism, basic propositions, utilitarianism, other minds, the past, ontology.) `{{oclc|186636305}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1957, \"The conception of probability as a logical relation\", in S. Korner, ed., *Observation and Interpretation in the Philosophy of Physics*, New York: Dover Publications.
- 1956, *The Problem of Knowledge*, London: Macmillan. `{{oclc|557578816}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1957, \"Logical Positivism - A Debate\" (with F. C. Copleston) in: Edwards, Paul, Pap, Arthur (eds.), *A Modern Introduction to Philosophy; readings from classical and contemporary sources*
- 1963, *The Concept of a Person and Other Essays*, London: Macmillan. (Essays on truth, privacy and private languages, laws of nature, the concept of a person, probability.) `{{oclc|3573935}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1967, [\"Has Austin Refuted the Sense-Datum Theory?\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/20114547) *Synthese* vol. XVIII, pp. 117--140. (Reprinted in Ayer 1969).
- 1968, *The Origins of Pragmatism*, London: Macmillan. `{{oclc|641463982}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1969, *Metaphysics and Common Sense*, London: Macmillan. (Essays on knowledge, man as a subject for science, chance, philosophy and politics, existentialism, metaphysics, and a reply to Austin on sense-data theory \[Ayer 1967\].) `{{ISBN|978-0-333-10517-7}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1971, *Russell and Moore: The Analytical Heritage*, London: Macmillan. `{{oclc|464766212}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1972, *Probability and Evidence*, London: Macmillan. `{{ISBN|978-0-333-12756-8}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1972, *Russell*, London: Fontana Modern Masters. `{{oclc|186128708}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1973, *The Central Questions of Philosophy*, London: Weidenfeld. `{{ISBN|978-0-297-76634-6}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1977, *Part of My Life*, London: Collins. `{{ISBN|978-0-00-216017-9}}`{=mediawiki}
- 1979, \"Replies\", in G. F. Macdonald, ed., *Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A. J. Ayer, With His Replies*, London: Macmillan; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
- 1980, *Hume*, Oxford: Oxford University Press
- 1982, *Philosophy in the Twentieth Century*, London: Weidenfeld.
- 1984, *Freedom and Morality and Other Essays*, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- 1984, *More of My Life*, London: Collins.
- 1986, *Ludwig Wittgenstein*, London: Penguin.
- 1986, *Voltaire*, New York: Random House.
- 1988, *Thomas Paine*, London: Secker & Warburg.
- 1990, *The Meaning of Life and Other Essays*, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
- 1991, \"A Defence of Empiricism\" in: Griffiths, A. Phillips (ed.), *A. J. Ayer: Memorial Essays* (Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements). Cambridge University Press.
- 1992, \"Intellectual Autobiography\" and Replies in: Lewis Edwin Hahn (ed.), *The Philosophy of A.J. Ayer (The Library of Living Philosophers Volume XXI)*, Open Court Publishing Co.
\*For more complete publication details see [\"The Philosophical Works of A. J. Ayer\"](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bbm%3A978-1-349-04862-5%2F1.pdf) (1979) and \"Bibliography of the writings of A.J. Ayer\" (1992).
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Delyan}}
The **Delian League** was a confederacy of Greek city-states, numbering between 150 and 330, founded in 478 BC under the leadership (hegemony) of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plataea at the end of the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The League functioned as a dual --offensive and defensive-- alliance (*symmachia*) of autonomous states, similar to its rival association, the Peloponnesian League. The League\'s modern name derives from its official meeting place, the island of Delos, where congresses were held within the sanctuary of the Temple of Apollo; contemporary authors referred to the organization simply as \"the Athenians and their Allies\".
While Sparta excelled as Greece\'s greatest power on land, Athens turned to the seas becoming the dominant naval power of the Greek world. Following Sparta\'s withdrawal from the conflict with Persia, Athens took the lead of the Hellenic alliance accompanied by several states around the Aegean and the Anatolian coast. The Delian League was formed as an anti-Persian defensive association of equal city-states seeking protection under Athens, as the latter wished to extend its support towards the Ionian Greek colonies of Anatolia. By the mid-fifth century BC, the alliance had developed into a naval imperial power, called the **Athenian Empire**, where Athens established complete dominion and the allies became increasingly less autonomous. The alliance held an assembly of representatives in order to shape its policy, while the members swore an oath of loyalty to the coalition. The Delian League successfully accomplished its principal strategic goal by decisively expelling the remaining Persian forces from the Aegean. As a result, Persia would cease to pose a major threat to Greece for the following fifty years.
From its inception, Athens became the League\'s biggest source of military power, while more and more allies preferred to pay the dues in cash. Athens began to use the League\'s funds for its own purposes, like the reinforcement of its naval supremacy, which led to conflicts between the city and its less powerful allies, at times culminating in rebellions, like that of Thasos in 465 BC. The League\'s treasury initially stood in Delos until, in a symbolic gesture, Pericles moved it to Athens in 454 BC. By 431 BC, the threat that the League presented to Spartan hegemony combined with Athens\'s heavy-handed control of the Delian League prompted the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War; the League was dissolved upon the war\'s conclusion in 404 BC under the direction of Lysander, the Spartan commander. Witnessing Sparta\'s growing hegemony in the first half of the 4th century BC, Athens went on to partly revive the alliance, this time called the Second Athenian League, reestablishing its naval dominance in the eastern Mediterranean.
## Background
thumb\|upright=1.5\|Athenian Empire in 445 BC, according to the Tribute Lists. The islands of Lesbos, Chios and Samos (shaded on the map) did not pay tribute. The Greco-Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, and particularly Ionia, by the Achaemenid Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC. The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule, eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city. While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants, this form of government was on the decline. By 500 BC, Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian clients. The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras. Attempting to save himself after a disastrous Persian-sponsored expedition in 499 BC, Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy. This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia, extending to Doris and Aeolis, beginning the Ionian Revolt.
The Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras, and during their only campaigning season (498 BC) they contributed to the capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis. After this, the Ionian revolt carried on (without further outside aid) for a further five years, until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians. However, in a decision of great historic significance, the Persian king Darius the Great decided that, despite having subdued the revolt, there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt. The Ionian revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius\'s empire, and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with. Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece, beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria.
In the next two decades, there would be two Persian invasions of Greece, occasioning, thanks to Greek historians, some of the most famous battles in history. During the first invasion, Thrace, Macedon and the Aegean Islands were added to the Persian Empire, and Eretria was duly destroyed. However, the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. After this invasion, Darius died, and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I.
Xerxes then personally led a second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, taking an enormous (although oft-exaggerated) army and navy to Greece. Those Greeks who chose to resist (the \'Allies\') were defeated in the twin simultaneous battles of Thermopylae on land and Artemisium at sea. All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus having fallen into Persian hands, the Persians then seeking to destroy the Allied navy once and for all, suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis. The following year, 479 BC, the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea, ending the invasion and the threat to Greece.
The Allied fleet defeated the remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale near the island of Samos---on the same day as Plataea, according to tradition. This action marks the end of the Persian invasion, and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco-Persian wars, the Greek counterattack. After Mycale, the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted, with the Persians now powerless to stop them. The Allied fleet then sailed to the Thracian Chersonese, still held by the Persians, and besieged and captured the town of Sestos. The following year, 478 BC, the Allies sent a force to capture the city of Byzantion (modern day Istanbul). The siege was successful, but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies, and resulted in Pausanias\'s recall.
## Formation
After Byzantion, Sparta was eager to end its involvement in the war. The Spartans greatly feared the rise of the Athenians as a challenge to their power. Additionally, the Spartans were of the view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war\'s purpose had already been achieved. There was also perhaps a feeling that establishing long-term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible. In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king Leotychidas had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion.
Xanthippus, the Athenian commander at Mycale, had furiously rejected this; the Ionian cities had been Athenian colonies, and the Athenians, if no one else, would protect the Ionians. This marked the point at which the leadership of the Greek alliance effectively passed to the Athenians. With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantion, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit.
The loose alliance of city states which had fought against Xerxes\'s invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league. With the withdrawal of these states, a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians; hence the modern designation \"Delian League\". According to Thucydides, the official aim of the League was to \"avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king.\"
In reality, this goal was divided into three main efforts---to prepare for future invasion, to seek revenge against Persia, and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war. The members were given a choice of either offering armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury; most states chose the tax. League members swore to have the same friends and enemies, and dropped ingots of iron into the sea to symbolize the permanence of their alliance. The Athenian politician Aristides would spend the rest of his life occupied in the affairs of the alliance, dying (according to Plutarch) a few years later in Pontus, whilst determining what the tax of new members was to be.
## Members
The Delian League, also known as the Athenian Empire, was a collection of Greek city-states largely based around the Aegean Sea which operated under the hegemony of Athens. This alliance initially served the purpose of coordinating a united Greek front against a perceived looming Persian threat against the Ionian city-states which bordered it. The members of the Delian League were made to swear an oath of loyalty to the league and contributed mostly monetarily but in some instances donated ships or other forces. It was also the case that many democratic members of the League owed their freedom from oligarchic or tyrannical rule to Athens. Because of this, Athens gained an overwhelming advantage in the voting system conducted by relying on the support of democratic city-states Athens had helped into being. By 454 Athens moved the treasury of the Delian League from the Island of Delos to the Parthenon in Athens. Benefitting greatly from the influx of cash coming out of the 150-330 members, Athens used the money to reinforce its own naval supremacy and used the remaining funds to embellish the city with art and architecture. In order to maintain the new synoecism, Athens began using its greatly expanded military to enforce membership in the League. City-states who wished to leave the alliance were punished by Athens with force such as Mytilene and Melos. No longer considered her allies, Athens eventually began to refer to the members of the Delian League as \"all the cities Athens rules.\" Athens also extended its authority over members of the League through judicial decisions. Synoecism under the Athenian Empire was enforced by resolving matters of and between states in Athens by courts composed of Athenian citizens and enforcing those decisions through the Athenian military.
## Composition and expansion {#composition_and_expansion}
In the first ten years of the league\'s existence, Cimon/Kimon forced Karystos in Euboea to join the league, conquered the island of Skyros and sent Athenian colonists there.
Over time, especially with the suppression of rebellions, Athens exercised hegemony over the rest of the league. Thucydides describes how Athens\'s control over the League grew:
> Of all the causes of defection, that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor. In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes. Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war.
## Rebellion
### Naxos
The first member of the league to attempt to secede was the island of Naxos in c. 471 BC. After being defeated, Naxos is believed (based on similar, later revolts) to have been forced to tear down its walls along with losing its fleet and vote in the League.
### Thasos
In 465 BC, Athens founded the colony of Amphipolis on the Strymon river. Thasos, a member of the League, saw her interests in the mines of Mt. Pangaion threatened and defected from the League to Persia. She called to Sparta for assistance but was denied, as Sparta was facing the largest helot revolt in its history.
After more than two years of siege, Thasos surrendered to the Athenian leader Aristides and was forced back into the league. As a result, the fortification walls of Thasos were torn down, and they had to pay yearly tribute and fines. Additionally, their land, naval ships, and the mines of Thasos were confiscated by Athens. The siege of Thasos marks the transformation of the Delian league from an alliance into, in the words of Thucydides, a hegemony.
## Policies of the League {#policies_of_the_league}
In 461 BC, Cimon was ostracized and was succeeded in his influence by democrats such as Ephialtes and Pericles. This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the Spartans and instead allying with her enemies, Argos and Thessaly. Megara deserted the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of walls across the Isthmus of Corinth and protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Roughly a decade earlier, due to encouragement from influential speaker Themistocles, the Athenians had also constructed the Long Walls connecting their city to the Piraeus, its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land.
In 454 BC, the Athenian general Pericles moved the Delian League\'s treasury from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, Plutarch indicates that many of Pericles\'s rivals viewed the transfer to Athens as usurping monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. Athens also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons as dues from league members, to only accepting money.
The new treasury established in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defence of members of the league. It was from tribute paid to the league that Pericles set to building the Parthenon on the Acropolis, replacing an older temple, as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. The Delian League was turning from an alliance into an empire.
## Wars against Persia {#wars_against_persia}
War with the Persians continued. In 460 BC, Egypt revolted under local leaders the Hellenes called Inaros and Amyrtaeus, who requested aid from Athens. Pericles led 250 ships, intended to attack Cyprus, to their aid because it would further damage Persia. After four years, however, the Egyptian rebellion was defeated by the Achaemenid general Megabyzus, who captured the greater part of the Athenian forces. In fact, according to Isocrates, the Athenians and their allies lost some 20,000 men in the expedition, while modern estimates place the figure at 50,000 men and 250 ships including reinforcements. The remainder escaped to Cyrene and thence returned home.
This was the Athenians\' main (public) reason for moving the treasury of the League from Delos to Athens, further consolidating their control over the League. The Persians followed up their victory by sending a fleet to re-establish their control over Cyprus, and 200 ships were sent out to counter them under Cimon, who returned from ostracism in 451 BC. He died during the blockade of Citium, though the fleet won a double victory by land and sea over the Persians off Salamis, Cyprus.
This battle was the last major one fought against the Persians. Many writers report that a peace treaty, known as the Peace of Callias, was formalized in 450 BC, but some writers believe that the treaty was a myth created later to inflate the stature of Athens. However, an understanding was definitely reached, enabling the Athenians to focus their attention on events in Greece proper.
## Wars in Greece {#wars_in_greece}
Soon, war with the Peloponnesians broke out. In 458 BC, the Athenians blockaded the island of Aegina, and simultaneously defended Megara from the Corinthians by sending out an army composed of those too young or old for regular military service. The following year, Sparta sent an army into Boeotia, reviving the power of Thebes in order to help hold the Athenians in check. Their return was blocked, and they resolved to march on Athens, where the Long Walls were not yet completed, winning a victory at the Battle of Tanagra. All this accomplished, however, was to allow them to return home via the Megarid. Two months later, the Athenians under Myronides invaded Boeotia, and winning the Battle of Oenophyta gained control of the whole country except Thebes.
Reverses followed peace with Persia in 449 BC. The Battle of Coronea, in 447 BC, led to the abandonment of Boeotia. Euboea and Megara revolted, and while the former was restored to its status as a tributary ally, the latter was a permanent loss. The Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues signed a peace treaty, which was set to endure for thirty years. It only lasted until 431 BC, when the Peloponnesian War broke out.
Those who revolted unsuccessfully during the war saw the example made of the Mytilenians, the principal people on Lesbos. After an unsuccessful revolt, the Athenians ordered the death of the entire male population. After some thought, they rescinded this order, and only put to death the leading 1000 ringleaders of the revolt, and redistributed the land of the entire island to Athenian shareholders, who were sent out to reside on Lesbos.
This type of treatment was not reserved solely for those who revolted. Thucydides documents the example of Melos, a small island, neutral in the war, though founded by Spartans. The Melians were offered a choice to join the Athenians, or be conquered. Choosing to resist, their town was besieged and conquered; the males were put to death and the women sold into slavery (see Melian dialogue).
## Athenian Empire (454--404 BC) {#athenian_empire_454404_bc}
By 454 BC, the Delian League could be fairly characterised as an Athenian Empire; a key event of 454 BC was the moving of the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens. This is often seen as a key marker of the transition from alliance to empire, but while it is significant, it is important to view the period as a whole when considering the development of Athenian imperialism, and not to focus on a single event as being the main contributor to it. At the start of the Peloponnesian War, only Chios and Lesbos were left to contribute ships, and these states were by now far too weak to secede without support. Lesbos tried to revolt first, and failed completely. Chios, the most powerful of the original members of the Delian League save Athens, was the last to revolt, and in the aftermath of the Syracusan Expedition enjoyed success for several years, inspiring all of Ionia to revolt. Athens was nonetheless eventually able to suppress these revolts.
To further strengthen Athens\'s grip on its empire, Pericles in 450 BC began a policy of establishing *kleruchiai*---quasi-colonies that remained tied to Athens and which served as garrisons to maintain control of the League\'s vast territory. Furthermore, Pericles employed a number of offices to maintain Athens\' empire: *proxenoi*, who fostered good relations between Athens and League members; *episkopoi* and *archontes*, who oversaw the collection of tribute; and *hellenotamiai*, who received the tribute on Athens\' behalf.
Athens\'s empire was not very stable and after 27 years of war, the Spartans, aided by the Persians and Athenian internal strife, were able to defeat it. However, it did not remain defeated for long. The Second Athenian League, a maritime self-defense league, was founded in 377 BC and was led by Athens. The Athenians would never recover the full extent of their power, and their enemies were now far stronger and more varied.
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August Horch
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**August Horch** (12 October 1868 -- 3 February 1951) was a German engineer and automobile pioneer, the founder of the manufacturing giant that eventually became Audi.
## Beginnings
Horch was born in Winningen, Rhenish Prussia. His initial trade was as a blacksmith, and then was educated at *italic=no* (Mittweida Technical College). After receiving a degree in engineering, he worked in shipbuilding. Horch worked for Karl Benz from 1896, before founding *A. Horch & Co.* in November 1899, in Ehrenfeld, Cologne, Germany.
## Manufacturing
The first Horch automobile was built in 1901. The company moved to Reichenbach in 1902 and Zwickau in 1904. Horch left the company in 1909 after a dispute, and set up in competition in Zwickau. His new firm was initially called *Horch Automobil-Werke GmbH*, but following a legal dispute over the *Horch* name, he decided to make another automobile company. (The court decided that *Horch* was a registered trademark on behalf of August\'s former partners and August was not entitled to use it any more). Consequently, Horch named his new company *Audi Automobilwerke GmbH* in 1910, *Audi* being the Latinization of Horch.
## Post Audi {#post_audi}
Horch left Audi in 1920 and went to Berlin and took various jobs. He published his autobiography, *I Built Cars (*Ich Baute Autos*)* in 1937. He also served on the board of Auto Union, the successor to Audi Automobilwerke GmbH he had founded. Horch remained an honorary executive at Auto Union during and after its reincorporation in Ingolstadt, Bavaria in the late 1940s until his death in 1951, ultimately not living to see the later resurrection of his Audi brand a decade later under the ownership of Volkswagen.
He was an honorary citizen of Zwickau and had a street named for his Audi cars in both Zwickau and his birthplace Winningen. He was made an honorary professor at Braunschweig University of Technology. There is an *August Horchstrasse* (August Horch Street) at Audi\'s main manufacturing plant in Ingolstadt.
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Avionics
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**Avionics** (a portmanteau of *aviation* and *electronics*) are the electronic systems used on aircraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform.
## History
The term \"avionics\" was coined in 1949 by Philip J. Klass, senior editor at *Aviation Week & Space Technology* magazine as a portmanteau of \"**aviation electronics**\".
Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I. The first airborne radios were in zeppelins, but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by the U.S. Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy. They required a two-seat aircraft with a second crewman who operated a telegraph key to spell out messages in Morse code. During World War I, amplitude modulation voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 (see TM (triode)) by the development of the triode vacuum tube, which were simple enough that the pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying.
Radar, the central technology used today in aircraft navigation and air traffic control, was developed by several nations, mainly in secret, as an air defense system in the 1930s during the runup to World War II. Many modern avionics have their origins in World War II wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are commonplace today began as specialized systems to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Britain\'s 1940 decision to share its radar technology with its U.S. ally, particularly the magnetron vacuum tube, in the famous Tizard Mission, significantly shortened the war. Modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F-15E and the now retired F-14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics. Most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics.
The civilian market has also seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems (fly-by-wire) and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs. The major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their primary method of transportation, more elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high restrictive airspaces have been invented.
### Modern avionics {#modern_avionics}
Avionics plays a heavy role in modernization initiatives like the Federal Aviation Administration\'s (FAA) Next Generation Air Transportation System project in the United States and the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) initiative in Europe. The Joint Planning and Development Office put forth a roadmap for avionics in six areas:
- Published Routes and Procedures -- Improved navigation and routing
- Negotiated Trajectories -- Adding data communications to create preferred routes dynamically
- Delegated Separation -- Enhanced situational awareness in the air and on the ground
- LowVisibility/CeilingApproach/Departure -- Allowing operations with weather constraints with less ground infrastructure
- Surface Operations -- To increase safety in approach and departure
- ATM Efficiencies -- Improving the air traffic management (ATM) process
### Market
The Aircraft Electronics Association reports \$1.73 billion avionics sales for the first three quarters of 2017 in business and general aviation, a 4.1% yearly improvement: 73.5% came from North America, forward-fit represented 42.3% while 57.7% were retrofits as the U.S. deadline of January 1, 2020 for mandatory ADS-B out approach.
## Aircraft avionics {#aircraft_avionics}
The cockpit or, in larger aircraft, under the cockpit of an aircraft or in a movable nosecone, is a typical location for avionic bay equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 115 volts 400 Hz, AC. There are several major vendors of flight avionics, including The Boeing Company, Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King), Universal Avionics Systems Corporation, Rockwell Collins (now Collins Aerospace), Thales Group, GE Aviation Systems, Garmin, Raytheon, Parker Hannifin, UTC Aerospace Systems (now Collins Aerospace), Selex ES (now Leonardo), Shadin Avionics, and Avidyne Corporation.
International standards for avionics equipment are prepared by the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee and published by ARINC.
### Avionics Installation {#avionics_installation}
Avionics installation is a critical aspect of modern aviation, ensuring that aircraft are equipped with the necessary electronic systems for safe and efficient operation. These systems encompass a wide range of functions, including communication, navigation, monitoring, flight control, and weather detection. Avionics installations are performed on all types of aircraft, from small general aviation planes to large commercial jets and military aircraft.
#### Installation Process {#installation_process}
The installation of avionics requires a combination of technical expertise, precision, and adherence to stringent regulatory standards. The process typically involves:
1. **Planning and Design**: Before installation, the avionics shop works closely with the aircraft owner to determine the required systems based on the aircraft type, intended use, and regulatory requirements. Custom instrument panels are often designed to accommodate the new systems.
2. **Wiring and Integration**: Avionics systems are integrated into the aircraft\'s electrical and control systems, with wiring often requiring laser marking for durability and identification. Shops use detailed schematics to ensure correct installation.
3. **Testing and Calibration**: After installation, each system must be thoroughly tested and calibrated to ensure proper function. This includes ground testing, flight testing, and system alignment with regulatory standards such as those set by the FAA.
4. **Certification**: Once the systems are installed and tested, the avionics shop completes the necessary certifications. In the U.S., this often involves compliance with FAA Part 91.411 and 91.413 for IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) operations, as well as RVSM (Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum) certification.
#### Regulatory Standards {#regulatory_standards}
Avionics installation is governed by strict regulatory frameworks to ensure the safety and reliability of aircraft systems. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sets the standards for avionics installations. These include guidelines for:
- **System Performance**: Avionics systems must meet performance benchmarks as defined by the FAA, ensuring they function correctly in all phases of flight.
- **Certification**: Shops performing installations must be FAA-certified, and their technicians often hold certifications such as the General Radiotelephone Operator License (GROL).
- **Inspections**: Aircraft equipped with newly installed avionics systems must undergo rigorous inspections before being cleared for flight, including both ground and flight tests.
#### Advancements in Avionics Technology {#advancements_in_avionics_technology}
The field of avionics has seen rapid technological advancements in recent years, leading to more integrated and automated systems. Key trends include:
- **Glass Cockpits**: Traditional analog gauges are being replaced by fully integrated glass cockpit displays, providing pilots with a centralized view of all flight parameters.
- **NextGen Technologies**: ADS-B and satellite-based navigation are part of the FAA\'s NextGen initiative, aimed at modernizing air traffic control and improving the efficiency of the national airspace.
- **Autonomous Systems**: Advanced automation systems are paving the way for more autonomous aircraft systems, enhancing safety, efficiency, and reducing pilot workload.
### Communications
Communications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by public-address systems and aircraft intercoms.
The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe, 25 kHz elsewhere. VHF is also used for line of sight communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-ATC. Amplitude modulation is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF (especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication.
### Navigation
Air navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the Earth. Avionics can use satellite navigation systems (such as GPS and WAAS), inertial navigation system (INS), ground-based radio navigation systems (such as VOR or LORAN), or any combination thereof. Some navigation systems such as GPS calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Older ground-based Navigation systems such as VOR or LORAN requires a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft\'s location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays.
### Monitoring
The first hints of glass cockpits emerged in the 1970s when flight-worthy cathode-ray tube (CRT) screens began to replace electromechanical displays, gauges and instruments. A \"glass\" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other analog displays. Aircraft were getting progressively more displays, dials and information dashboards that eventually competed for space and pilot attention. In the 1970s, the average aircraft had more than 100 cockpit instruments and controls. Glass cockpits started to come into being with the Gulfstream G‑IV private jet in 1985. One of the key challenges in glass cockpits is to balance how much control is automated and how much the pilot should do manually. Generally they try to automate flight operations while keeping the pilot constantly informed.
### Aircraft flight-control system {#aircraft_flight_control_system}
Aircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War I to fly bomber planes steady enough to hit accurate targets from 25,000 feet. When it was first adopted by the U.S. military, a Honeywell engineer sat in the back seat with bolt cutters to disconnect the autopilot in case of emergency. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff.
The first simple commercial auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces. In helicopters, auto-stabilization was used in a similar way. The first systems were electromechanical. The advent of fly-by-wire and electro-actuated flight surfaces (rather than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical devices that were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical systems, the software is very strictly tested.
### Fuel Systems {#fuel_systems}
Fuel Quantity Indication System (FQIS) monitors the amount of fuel aboard. Using various sensors, such as capacitance tubes, temperature sensors, densitometers & level sensors, the FQIS computer calculates the mass of fuel remaining on board.
Fuel Control and Monitoring System (FCMS) reports fuel remaining on board in a similar manner, but, by controlling pumps & valves, also manages fuel transfers around various tanks.
- Refuelling control to upload to a certain total mass of fuel and distribute it automatically.
- Transfers during flight to the tanks that feed the engines. E.G. from fuselage to wing tanks
- Centre of gravity control transfers from the tail (trim) tanks forward to the wings as fuel is expended
- Maintaining fuel in the wing tips (to alleviate wing bending due to lift in flight) & transferring to the main tanks after landing
- Controlling fuel jettison during an emergency to reduce the aircraft weight.
### Collision-avoidance systems {#collision_avoidance_systems}
To supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the location of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution.
To help avoid controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), aircraft use systems such as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as a key element. One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of \"look-ahead\" information, because it only provides altitude above terrain \"look-down\". In order to overcome this weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain awareness warning system (TAWS).
### Flight recorders {#flight_recorders}
Commercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as \"black boxes\", store flight information and audio from the cockpit. They are often recovered from an aircraft after a crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident.
### Weather systems {#weather_systems}
Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.
Lightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems. Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain, and traffic onto a single screen, greatly simplifying navigation.
Modern weather systems also include wind shear and turbulence detection and terrain and traffic warning systems. In‑plane weather avionics are especially popular in Africa, India, and other countries where air-travel is a growing market, but ground support is not as well developed.
### Aircraft management systems {#aircraft_management_systems}
There has been a progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management. Health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers to give maintainers early warnings of parts that will need replacement.
The integrated modular avionics concept proposes an integrated architecture with application software portable across an assembly of common hardware modules. It has been used in fourth generation jet fighters and the latest generation of airliners.
## Mission or tactical avionics {#mission_or_tactical_avionics}
Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E‑3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers.
Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors.
### Military communications {#military_communications}
While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems are designed to withstand the rigors of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30--88 MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the communications. Data links such as Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.).
### Radar
Airborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include airborne early warning, anti-submarine warfare, and even weather radar (Arinc 708) and ground tracking/proximity radar.
The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market has had weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the aircraft.
### Sonar
Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect shipping assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices (sonobuoys) and these are also used to determine the location of enemy submarines.
### Electro-optics {#electro_optics}
Electro-optic systems include devices such as the head-up display (HUD), forward looking infrared (FLIR), infrared search and track and other passive infrared devices (Passive infrared sensor). These are all used to provide imagery and information to the flight crew. This imagery is used for everything from search and rescue to navigational aids and target acquisition.
### ESM/DAS
Electronic support measures and defensive aids systems are used extensively to gather information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also used to determine the state of a threat and identify it.
### Aircraft networks {#aircraft_networks}
The avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft are interconnected using an avionics databus. Common avionics databus protocols, with their primary application, include:
- Aircraft Data Network (ADN): Ethernet derivative for Commercial Aircraft
- Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet: Specific implementation of ARINC 664 (ADN) for Commercial Aircraft
- ARINC 429: Generic Medium-Speed Data Sharing for Private and Commercial Aircraft
- ARINC 664: See ADN above
- ARINC 629: Commercial Aircraft (Boeing 777)
- ARINC 708: Weather Radar for Commercial Aircraft
- ARINC 717: Flight Data Recorder for Commercial Aircraft
- ARINC 825: CAN bus for commercial aircraft (for example Boeing 787 and Airbus A350)
- Commercial Standard Digital Bus
- IEEE 1394b: Military Aircraft
- MIL-STD-1553: Military Aircraft
- MIL-STD-1760: Military Aircraft
- TTP -- Time-Triggered Protocol: Boeing 787, Airbus A380, Fly-By-Wire Actuation Platforms from Parker Aerospace
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Ares
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**Ares** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɛər|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἄρης*, *Árēs* `{{IPA|el|árɛːs|}}`{=mediawiki}) is the Greek god of war and courage. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. The Greeks were ambivalent towards him. He embodies the physical valor necessary for success in war but can also personify sheer brutality and bloodlust, in contrast to his sister Athena, whose martial functions include military strategy and generalship. An association with Ares endows places, objects, and other deities with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality.
Although Ares\' name shows his origins as Mycenaean, his reputation for savagery was thought by some to reflect his likely origins as a Thracian deity. Some cities in Greece and several in Asia Minor held annual festivals to bind and detain him as their protector. In parts of Asia Minor, he was an oracular deity. Still further away from Greece, the Scythians were said to ritually kill one in a hundred prisoners of war as an offering to their equivalent of Ares. The later belief that ancient Spartans had offered human sacrifice to Ares may owe more to mythical prehistory, misunderstandings, and reputation than to reality.
Although there are many literary allusions to Ares\' love affairs and children, he has a limited role in Greek mythology. When he does appear, he is often humiliated. In the Trojan War, Aphrodite, protector of Troy, persuades Ares to take the Trojans\' side. The Trojans lose, while Ares\' sister Athena helps the Greeks to victory. Most famously, when the craftsman-god Hephaestus discovers his wife Aphrodite is having an affair with Ares, he traps the lovers in a net and exposes them to the ridicule of the other gods.
Ares\' nearest counterpart in Roman religion is Mars, who was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion as ancestral protector of the Roman people and state. During the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars, and in later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures became virtually indistinguishable.
## Names
The etymology of the name *Ares* is traditionally connected with the Greek word *ἀρή* (*arē*), the Ionic form of the Doric *ἀρά* (*ara*), \"bane, ruin, curse, imprecation\". Walter Burkert notes that \"Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle, war.\" R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name. The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek *𐀀𐀩}}*, *a-re*, written in the Linear B syllabic script.
The adjectival epithet, *Areios* (\"warlike\") was frequently appended to the names of other gods when they took on a warrior aspect or became involved in warfare: *Zeus Areios*, *Athena Areia*, even Aphrodite Areia (\"Aphrodite within Ares\" or \"feminine Ares\"), who was warlike, fully armoured and armed, partnered with Athena in Sparta, and represented at Kythira\'s temple to Aphrodite Urania. In the *Iliad*, the word *ares* is used as a common noun synonymous with \"battle\".
In the Classical period, Ares is given the epithet Enyalios, which seems to appear on the Mycenaean KN V 52 tablet as *𐀁𐀝𐀷𐀪𐀍}}*, *e-nu-wa-ri-jo*. Enyalios was sometimes identified with Ares and sometimes differentiated from him as another war god with separate cult, even in the same town; Burkert describes them as \"doubles almost\".
## Epithets
Source:
- **aatos** or **atos polemoio**, insatiate at war.
- **alloprosallos**, leaning first to one side, then to the other.
- **andreifontēs**, man-slaying.
- **apotimos**, dishonoured by Sophocles.
- **brotoloigos**, plague of man.
- **enyalios**, warlike.
- **Thēritas**, at Sparta. Laconic form of Thersites, audacious.
- **mainomenos**, malignant.
- **miaifonos**, blood-stained
- **tykton kakon**, complete evil.
## Cult
In mainland Greece and the Peloponnese, only a few places are known to have had a formal temple and cult of Ares.`{{refn|group=n|Burkert lists temples at or near Troizen, Geronthrai and Halicarnassus. The Oxford Classical Dictionary adds Argos, Megalopolis, Therapne and Tegea in the Peloponnese, Athens and Erythrae, and Cretan sites Cnossus, Lato, Biannos and perhaps Olus.<ref name="OCD-Ares">{{cite book |last1=Graf |first1=Fritz |editor1-last=Hornblower & Spawforth |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=019866172X |page=152 |edition=Third |chapter=Ares}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Pausanias (2nd century AD) notes an altar to Ares at Olympia, and the moving of a Temple of Ares to the Athenian agora during the reign of Augustus, essentially rededicating it (2 AD) as a Roman temple to the Augustan Mars Ultor. The Areopagus (\"mount of Ares\"), a natural rock outcrop in Athens, some distance from the Acropolis, was supposedly where Ares was tried and acquitted by the gods for his revenge-killing of Poseidon\'s son, Halirrhothius, who had raped Ares\' daughter Alcippe. Its name was used for the court that met there, mostly to investigate and try potential cases of treason.
Numismatist M. Jessop Price states that Ares \"typified the traditional Spartan character\", but had no important cult in Sparta; and he never occurs on Spartan coins. Pausanias gives two examples of his cult, both of them conjointly with or \"within\" a warlike Aphrodite, on the Spartan acropolis. Gonzalez observes, in his 2005 survey of Ares\' cults in Asia Minor, that cults to Ares on the Greek mainland may have been more common than some sources assert. Wars between Greek states were endemic; war and warriors provided Ares\'s tribute, and fed his insatiable appetite for battle.
Ares\' attributes are instruments of war: a helmet, shield, and sword or spear. Libanius \"makes the apple sacred to Ares\", but \"offers no further comment\", nor connections to any aetiological myth. Apples are one of Aphrodites\' sacred or symbolic fruits. Littlewood follows Artemidorus claim that to dream of sour apples presages conflict, and lists Ares alongside Eris and the mythological \"Apples of Discord\".
### Chained statues {#chained_statues}
Gods were immortal but could be bound and restrained, both in mythic narrative and in cult practice. There was an archaic Spartan statue of Ares in chains in the temple of Enyalios (sometimes regarded as the son of Ares, sometimes as Ares himself), which Pausanias claimed meant that the spirit of war and victory was to be kept in the city.`{{refn|group=n|"Opposite this temple [the temple of Hipposthenes] is an old image of Enyalius in fetters. The idea the Lacedaemonians express by this image is the same as the Athenians express by their Wingless Victory; the former think that Enyalius will never run away from them, being bound in the fetters, while the Athenians think that Victory, having no wings, will always remain where she is".<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.15.7 3.15.7].</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The Spartans are known to have ritually bound the images of other deities, including Aphrodite and Artemis (cf Ares and Aphrodite bound by Hephaestus), and in other places there were chained statues of Artemis and Dionysos.
Statues of Ares in chains are described in the instructions given by an oracle of the late Hellenistic era to various cities of Pamphylia (in Anatolia) including Syedra, Lycia and Cilicia, places almost perpetually under threat from pirates. Each was told to set up a statue of \"bloody, man-slaying Ares\" and provide it with an annual festival in which it was ritually bound with iron fetters (\"by Dike and Hermes\") as if a supplicant for justice, put on trial and offered sacrifice. The oracle promises that \"thus will he become a peaceful deity for you, once he has driven the enemy horde far from your country, and he will give rise to prosperity much prayed for\". This Ares *karpodotes* (\"giver of Fruits\") is well attested in Lycia and Pisidia.
### Sacrifices
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Ares (right) with Demeter, Dionysus and Hermes on the frieze of the Parthenon, ca. 447--433 BC, British Museum.
Like most Greek deities, Ares was given animal sacrifice; in Sparta, after battle, he was given an ox for a victory by stratagem, or a rooster for victory through onslaught.`{{refn|group=n|Hughes is citing Plutarch, ''Instituta Laconica'' (trans. Babbit) Loeb, 1931, 25, 238F; "Whenever they overcome their enemies by out-generaling them, they sacrifice a bull to Ares, but when the victory is gained in open conflict, they offer a cock, thus trying to make their leaders habitually not merely fighters but tacticians as well". In ''The Life of Agesilaus'', 33.4: Plutarch claims that the Spartans thought victory was such ordinary work for them, they only sacrificed a rooster in recognition.}}`{=mediawiki} The usual recipient of sacrifice before battle was Athena. Reports of historic human sacrifice to Ares in an obscure rite known as the *Hekatomphonia* represent a very long-standing error, repeated through several centuries and well into the modern era.`{{refn|group=n|Among others, it has been repeated by ancient sources including [[Apollonius of Athens]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]], [[Plutarch]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and by many modern historians; see Hughes, "Human Sacrifice", 1991, pp.119-122 & notes 145, 146.}}`{=mediawiki} The *hekatomphonia* was an animal sacrifice to Zeus; it could be offered by any warrior who had personally slain one hundred of the enemy.`{{refn|group=n|In the [[Protrepticus (Clement)|Protrepticus]], Clement of Alexandria writes: "Indeed, [[Aristomenes|Aristomenes the Messenian]] sacrificed 300 men to Zeus of [[Ithome]]...[including] [[Theopompus]] the [[Lacedaemonian]] (Spartan) king, a noble victim." The rite was supposedly performed three times by Aristomenes: Plutarch did not find it credible that one man could have slaughtered three hundred. The Spartans claimed that Theopompus had only been wounded}}`{=mediawiki} Pausanias reports that in Sparta, each company of youths sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in a hand-to-hand \"fight without rules\" at the Phoebaeum.`{{refn|group=n|"Here each company of youths sacrifices a puppy to Enyalius, holding that the most valiant of tame animals is an acceptable victim to the most valiant of the gods. I know of no other Greeks who are accustomed to sacrifice puppies except the people of [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]]; these too sacrifice a puppy, a black bitch, to the Wayside Goddess ([[Hecate]])".<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.14.10 3.14.10].</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} The chthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares. Porphyry claims, without detail, that Apollodorus of Athens (circa second century BC) says the Spartans made human sacrifices to Ares, but this may be a reference to mythic pre-history.
### Thrace and Scythia {#thrace_and_scythia}
A Thracian god identified by Herodotus (c. 484 -- c. 425 BC) as Ares, through *interpretatio Graeca*, was one of three otherwise unnamed deities that Thracian commoners were said to worship. Herodotus recognises and names the other two as \"Dionysus\" and \"Artemis\", and claims that the Thracian aristocracy exclusively worshiped \"Hermes\". In Herodotus\' *Histories*, the Scythians worship an indigenous form of Greek Ares, who is otherwise unnamed, but ranked beneath Tabiti (whom Herodotus claims as a form of Hestia), Api and Papaios in Scythia\'s divine hierarchy. His cult object was an iron sword. The \"Scythian Ares\" was offered blood-sacrifices (or ritual killings) of cattle, horses and \"one in every hundred human war-captives\", whose blood was used to douse the sword. Statues, and complex platform-altars made of heaped brushwood were devoted to him. This sword-cult, or one very similar, is said to have persisted among the Alans. Some have posited that the \"Sword of Mars\" in later European history alludes to the Huns having adopted Ares.
### Asia Minor {#asia_minor}
In some parts of Asia Minor, Ares was a prominent oracular deity, something not found in any Hellennic cult to Ares or Roman cult to Mars. Ares was linked in some regions or polities with a local god or cultic hero, and recognised as a higher, more prestigious deity than in mainland Greece. His cults in southern Asia Minor are attested from the 5th century BC and well into the later Roman Imperial era, at 29 different sites, and on over 70 local coin issues. He is sometimes represented on coinage of the region by the \"Helmet of Ares\" or carrying a spear and a shield, or as a fully armed warrior, sometimes accompanied by a female deity. In what is now western Turkey, the Hellenistic city of Metropolis built a monumental temple to Ares as the city\'s protector, not before the 3rd century BC. It is now lost, but the names of some of its priests and priestesses survive, along with the temple\'s likely depictions on coins of the province.
### Crete
A sanctuary of Aphrodite was established at Sta Lenika, on Crete, between the cities of Lato and Olus, possibly during the Geometric period. It was rebuilt in the late 2nd century BC as a double-sanctuary to Ares and Aphrodite. Inscriptions record disputes over the ownership of the sanctuary. The names of Ares and Aphrodite appear as witness to sworn oaths, and there is a Victory thanks-offering to Aphrodite, whom Millington believes had capacity as a \"warrior-protector acting in the realm of Ares\". There were cultic links between the Sta Lenika sanctuary, Knossos and other Cretan states, and perhaps with Argos on the mainland. While the Greek literary and artistic record from both the Archaic and Classical eras connects Ares and Aphrodite as complementary companions and ideal though adulterous lovers, their cult pairing and Aphrodite as warrior-protector is localised to Crete.
### Aksum
In Africa, Maḥrem, the principal god of the kings of Aksum prior to the 4th century AD, was invoked as Ares in Greek inscriptions. The anonymous king who commissioned the Monumentum Adulitanum in the late 2nd or early 3rd century refers to \"my greatest god, Ares, who also begat me, through whom I brought under my sway \[various peoples\]\". The monumental throne celebrating the king\'s conquests was itself dedicated to Ares. In the early 4th century, the last pagan king of Aksum, Ezana, referred to \"the one who brought me forth, the invincible Ares\".
## Characterisation
Ares was one of the Twelve Olympians in the archaic tradition represented by the *Iliad* and *Odyssey.* In Greek literature, Ares often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war and is the personification of sheer brutality and bloodlust (\"overwhelming, insatiable in battle, destructive, and man-slaughtering\", as Burkert puts it), in contrast to his sister, the armored Athena, whose functions as a goddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship. An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality; but when Ares does appear in myths, he typically faces humiliation.
In the *Iliad*, Zeus expresses a recurring Greek revulsion toward the god when Ares returns wounded and complaining from the battlefield at Troy: `{{poem quote|Then looking at him darkly Zeus who gathers the clouds spoke to him:
"Do not sit beside me and whine, you double-faced liar.
To me you are the most hateful of all gods who hold Olympus.
Forever quarrelling is dear to your heart, wars and battles.
...
And yet I will not long endure to see you in pain, since
you are my child, and it was to me that your mother bore you.
But were you born of some other god and proved so ruinous
long since you would have been dropped beneath the gods of the bright sky."<ref>''Iliad'', Book 5, lines 798–891, 895–898 in the translation of [[Richmond Lattimore]].</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
This ambivalence is expressed also in the Greeks\' association of Ares with the Thracians, whom they regarded as a barbarous and warlike people. Thrace was considered to be Ares\'s birthplace and his refuge after the affair with Aphrodite was exposed to the general mockery of the other gods.`{{refn|group=n|Homer ''Odyssey'' viii. 361; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, see [[Ovid]], ''[[Ars Amatoria]]'', book ii.part xi.585, which tells the same tale: "Their captive bodies are, with difficulty, freed, at your plea, Neptune: Venus runs to Paphos: Mars heads for Thrace."; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, see also [[Statius]], ''Thebaid'' vii. 42}}`{=mediawiki}
A late 6th-century BC funerary inscription from Attica emphasizes the consequences of coming under Ares\'s sway:`{{poem quote|Stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos
Whom raging Ares destroyed one day, fighting in the foremost ranks.<ref>Athens, NM 3851 quoted in Andrew Stewart, ''One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works'', Introduction: I. "The Sources"</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
## Mythology
### Birth
He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera.
### Argonautica
In the *Argonautica*, the *Golden Fleece* hangs in a grove sacred to Ares, until its theft by Jason. The Birds of Ares (*Ornithes Areioi*) drop feather darts in defense of the Amazons\' shrine to Ares, as father of their queen, on a coastal island in the Black Sea.
### Founding of Thebes {#founding_of_thebes}
Ares plays a central role in the founding myth of Thebes, as the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by Cadmus. The dragon\'s teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprang up as the fully armored autochthonic Spartoi. Cadmus placed himself in the god\'s service for eight years to atone for killing the dragon. To further propitiate Ares, Cadmus married Harmonia, a daughter of Ares\'s union with Aphrodite. In this way, Cadmus harmonized all strife and founded the city of Thebes. In reality, Thebes came to dominate Boeotia\'s great and fertile plain, which in both history and myth was a battleground for competing polities. According to Plutarch, the plain was anciently described as \"The dancing-floor of Ares\".
### Aphrodite
In Homer\'s *Odyssey*, in the tale sung by the bard in the hall of Alcinous, the Sun-god Helios once spied Ares and Aphrodite having sex secretly in the hall of Hephaestus, her husband. Helios reported the incident to Hephaestus. Contriving to catch the illicit couple in the act, Hephaestus fashioned a finely-knitted and nearly invisible net with which to snare them. At the appropriate time, this net was sprung, and trapped Ares and Aphrodite locked in very private embrace.`{{refn|group=n|name="Odyssey, 8.295"|{{cite web | title = Odyssey, 8.295 | url = http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.+Od.+8.&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0218 | quote = [In [[Robert Fagles]]'s translation]: ... and the two lovers, free of the bonds that overwhelmed them so, sprang up and away at once, and the Wargod sped Thrace, while Love with her telltale laughter sped to Paphos ...}}}}`{=mediawiki}
But Hephaestus was not satisfied with his revenge, so he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair. For the sake of modesty, the goddesses demurred, but the male gods went to witness the sight. Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite, others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares, but all who were present mocked the two. Once the couple was released, the embarrassed Ares returned to his homeland, Thrace, and Aphrodite went to Paphos.`{{refn|group=n|name="Odyssey, 8.295"}}`{=mediawiki}
In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon, who was Ares companion in drinking and even love-making, by his door to warn them of Helios\'s arrival as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite\'s infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty. Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus. The furious Ares turned the sleepy Alectryon into a rooster which now always announces the arrival of the sun in the morning, as a way of apologizing to Ares.
The Chorus of Aeschylus\' *Suppliants* (written 463 BC) refers to Ares as Aphrodite\'s \"mortal-destroying bedfellow\". In the *Illiad*, Ares helps the Trojans because of his affection for their divine protector, Aphrodite; she thus redirects his innate destructive savagery to her own purposes.
### Giants
In one archaic myth, related only in the *Iliad* by the goddess Dione to her daughter Aphrodite, two chthonic giants, the Aloadae, named Otus and Ephialtes, bound Ares in chains and imprisoned him in a bronze urn, where he remained for thirteen months, a lunar year. \"And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful Eriboea, the young giants\' stepmother, had not told Hermes what they had done,\" she related. In this, \[Burkert\] suspects \"a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month\". Ares was held screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him, and Artemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other.
In Nonnus\'s *Dionysiaca*, in the war between Cronus and Zeus, Ares killed an unnamed giant son of Echidna who was allied with Cronus, and described as spitting \"horrible poison\" and having \"snaky\" feet.
In some versions of the Gigantomachy, Ares was the god who killed the giant Mimas.
In the 2nd century AD *Metamorphoses* of Antoninus Liberalis, when the monstrous Typhon attacked Olympus the gods transformed into animals and fled to Egypt; Ares changed into a fish, the Lepidotus (sacred to the Egyptian war-god Anhur). Liberalis\'s koine Greek text is a \"completely inartistic\" epitome of Nicander\'s now lost *Heteroeumena* (2nd century BC).
### *Iliad*
In Homer\'s *Iliad*, Ares has no fixed allegiance. He promises Athena and Hera that he will fight for the Achaeans but Aphrodite persuades him to side with the Trojans. During the war, Diomedes fights Hector and sees Ares fighting on the Trojans\' side. Diomedes calls for his soldiers to withdraw. Zeus grants Athena permission to drive Ares from the battlefield. Encouraged by Hera and Athena, Diomedes thrusts with his spear at Ares. Athena drives the spear home, and all sides tremble at Ares\'s cries. Ares flees to Mount Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. Ares overhears that his son Ascalaphus has been killed and wants to change sides again, rejoining the Achaeans for vengeance, disregarding Zeus\'s order that no Olympian should join the battle. Athena stops him. Later, when Zeus allows the gods to fight in the war again, Ares attacks Athena to avenge his previous injury. Athena overpowers him by striking him with a boulder.
### Attendants
Deimos (\"Terror\" or \"Dread\") and Phobos (\"Fear\") are Ares\' companions in war, and according to Hesiod, are also his children by Aphrodite. Eris, the goddess of discord, or Enyo, the goddess of war, bloodshed, and violence, was considered the sister and companion of the violent Ares. In at least one tradition, Enyalius, rather than another name for Ares, was his son by Enyo.
Ares may also be accompanied by Kydoimos, the daemon of the din of battle; the Makhai (\"Battles\"); the \"Hysminai\" (\"Acts of manslaughter\"); Polemos, a minor spirit of war, or only an epithet of Ares, since it has no specific dominion; and Polemos\'s daughter, Alala, the goddess or personification of the Greek war-cry, whose name Ares uses as his own war-cry. Ares\'s sister Hebe (\"Youth\") also draws baths for him.
According to Pausanias, local inhabitants of Therapne, Sparta, recognized Thero, \"feral, savage\", as a nurse of Ares.
### Offspring and affairs {#offspring_and_affairs}
Though Ares plays a relatively limited role in Greek mythology as represented in literary narratives, his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are often alluded to. The union of Ares and Aphrodite created the gods Eros, Anteros, Phobos, Deimos, and Harmonia. Other versions include Alcippe as one of their daughters.
Ares had a romantic liaison with Eos, the goddess of the dawn. Aphrodite discovered them, and in anger she cursed Eos with insatiable lust for men.
Cycnus (Κύκνος) of Macedonia was a mortal son of Ares who tried to build a temple to his father with the skulls and bones of guests and travellers. Heracles fought him and, in one account, killed him. In another account, Ares fought his son\'s killer but Zeus parted the combatants with a thunderbolt.
By a woman named Teirene he had a daughter named Thrassa, who in turn had a daughter named Polyphonte. Polyphonte was cursed by Aphrodite to love and mate with a bear, producing two sons, Agrius and Oreius, who were hubristic toward the gods and had a habit of eating their guests. Zeus sent Hermes to punish them, and he chose to chop off their hands and feet. Since Polyphonte was descended from him, Ares stopped Hermes, and the two brothers came into an agreement to turn Polyphonte\'s family into birds instead. Oreius became an eagle owl, Agrius a vulture, and Polyphonte a strix, possibly a small owl, certainly a portent of war; Polyphonte\'s servant prayed not to become a bird of evil omen and Ares and Hermes fulfilled her wish by choosing the woodpecker for her, a good omen for hunters.
#### List of offspring and their mothers {#list_of_offspring_and_their_mothers}
Sometimes poets and dramatists recounted ancient traditions, which varied, and sometimes they invented new details; later scholiasts might draw on either or simply guess. Thus while Phobos and Deimos were regularly described as offspring of Ares, others listed here such as Meleager, Sinope and Solymus were sometimes said to be children of Ares and sometimes given other fathers.
The following is a list of Ares\' offspring, by various mothers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source dates.
Offspring Mother Source Date
--------------------- ----------------------- ------------------- ---------------------------------------- --
Phobos Aphrodite Hes. *Theog.* data-sort-value=1 \| 8th cent. BC
Deimos Hes. *Theog.* data-sort-value=1 \| 8th cent. BC
Harmonia Hes. *Theog.* data-sort-value=1 \| 8th cent. BC
Eros Simonides
Anteros Cic. *DND* data-sort-value=15 \| 1st cent. BC
Odomantus Calliope
Mygdon
Edonus
Biston Terpsichore *Etym. Mag.* data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD
Callirrhoe Steph. Byz. data-sort-value=27 \| 6th cent. AD
Enyalius Enyo
Dragon of Thebes Erinys of Telphusa
Nike *No mother mentioned* *HH* 8
Sinope (possibly) Aegina Schol. Ap. Rhod.
Edonus Callirrhoe Steph. Byz. data-sort-value=27 \| 6th cent. AD
Odomantus Steph. Byz. data-sort-value=27 \| 6th cent. AD
Cycnus Cleobula
Pelopia Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Pyrene Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Diomedes of Thrace Cyrene Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Crestone Tzetzes data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD
The Amazons Harmonia
Oenomaus Sterope Hyg. *Fab.* data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD
Harpina Diod. Sic. data-sort-value=15 \| 1st cent. BC
Eurythoe the Danaid Tzetzes data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD
Evenus Sterope Ps.-Plutarch
Demonice Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Thrassa Tereine Ant. Lib. data-sort-value=20 \| 2nd/3rd cent. AD
Melanippus Triteia Paus. data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD
Aeropus Aerope Paus. data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD
Alcippe Aglauros Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Meleager Althaea Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Calydon Astynome
Ascalaphus Astyoche Paus. data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD
Ialmenus Paus. data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD
Parthenopaeus Atalanta Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Solymus Caldene *Etym. Mag.* data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD
Phlegyas Chryse Paus. data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD
Dotis Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Pangaeus Critobule Ps.-Plutarch
Molus, Pylus Demonice Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Thestius Pisidice Ps.-Plutarch
Demonice Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Stymphelus Dormothea Ps.-Plutarch
Antiope Otrera Hyg. *Fab.* data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD
Hippolyta Hyg. *Fab.* data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD
Melanippe
Penthesilea Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Sinope Parnassa Eumelus
Lycaon Pyrene
Lycastus Phylonome Ps.-Plutarch
Parrhasius Ps.-Plutarch
Oxylus Protogeneia Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Bithys Sete
Tmolus Theogone Ps.-Plutarch
Ismarus Thracia
Alcon of Thrace *No mother mentioned* Hyg. *Fab.* data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD
Chalyps
Cheimarrhoos Schol. Hes., *WD*
Dryas Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
Hyperbius
Lycus of Libya
Nisos Hyg. *Fab.* data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD
Oeagrus Nonnus data-sort-value=25 \| 5th cent. AD
Paeon *Etym. Mag.* data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD
Portheus (Porthaon) Ant. Lib. data-sort-value=20 \| 2nd/3rd cent. AD
Tereus Apollod. data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD
## Mars
The nearest counterpart of Ares among the Roman gods is Mars, a son of Jupiter and Juno, pre-eminent among the Roman army\'s military gods but originally an agricultural deity. As a father of Romulus, Rome\'s legendary founder, Mars was given an important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion, as a guardian deity of the entire Roman state and its people. Under the influence of Greek culture, Mars was identified with Ares, but the character and dignity of the two deities differed fundamentally. Mars was represented as a means to secure peace, and he was a father *(pater)* of the Roman people. In one tradition, he fathered Romulus and Remus through his rape of Rhea Silvia. In another, his lover, the goddess Venus, gave birth to Aeneas, the Trojan prince and refugee who \"founded\" Rome several generations before Romulus.
In the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars. Greek writers under Roman rule also recorded cult practices and beliefs pertaining to Mars under the name of Ares. Thus in the classical tradition of later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures later became virtually indistinguishable.
## Renaissance and later depictions {#renaissance_and_later_depictions}
In Renaissance and Neoclassical works of art, Ares\'s symbols are a spear and helmet, his animal is a dog, and his bird is the vulture. In literary works of these eras, Ares is replaced by the Roman Mars, a romantic emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek mythology.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
## Genealogy
| 2025-08-01T00:00:00 |
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Alpha compositing
|
In computer graphics, **alpha compositing** or **alpha blending** is the process of combining one image with a background to create the appearance of partial or full transparency. It is often useful to render picture elements (pixels) in separate passes or layers and then combine the resulting 2D images into a single, final image called the composite. Compositing is used extensively in film when combining computer-rendered image elements with live footage. Alpha blending is also used in 2D computer graphics to put rasterized foreground elements over a background.
In order to combine the picture elements of the images correctly, it is necessary to keep an associated *matte* for each element in addition to its color. This matte layer contains the coverage information---the shape of the geometry being drawn---making it possible to distinguish between parts of the image where something was drawn and parts that are empty.
Although the most basic operation of combining two images is to put one over the other, there are many operations, or blend modes, that are used.
## History
The concept of an alpha channel was introduced by Alvy Ray Smith and Ed Catmull in the late 1970s at the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab. Bruce A. Wallace derived the same straight **over** operator based on a physical reflectance/transmittance model in 1981. A 1984 paper by Thomas Porter and Tom Duff introduced premultiplied alpha using a geometrical approach.
The use of the term *alpha* is explained by Smith as follows: \"We called it that because of the classic linear interpolation formula $\alpha A + (1-\alpha)B$ that uses the Greek letter $\alpha$ (alpha) to control the amount of interpolation between, in this case, two images A and B\". That is, when compositing image A atop image B, the value of $\alpha$ in the formula is taken directly from A\'s alpha channel.
## Description
In a 2D image a color combination is stored for each picture element (pixel), often a combination of red, green and blue (RGB). When alpha compositing is in use, each pixel has an additional numeric value stored in its **alpha channel**, with a value ranging from 0 to 1. A value of 0 means that the pixel is fully transparent and the color in the pixel beneath will show through. A value of 1 means that the pixel is fully opaque.
With the existence of an alpha channel, it is possible to express compositing image operations using a *compositing algebra*. For example, given two images *A* and *B*, the most common compositing operation is to combine the images so that *A* appears in the foreground and *B* appears in the background. This can be expressed as *A* **over** *B*. In addition to **over**, Porter and Duff defined the compositing operators **in**, **held out by** (the phrase refers to holdout matting and is usually abbreviated **out**), **atop**, and **xor** (and the reverse operators **rover**, **rin**, **rout**, and **ratop**) from a consideration of choices in blending the colors of two pixels when their coverage is, conceptually, overlaid orthogonally:
As an example, the **over** operator can be accomplished by applying the following formula to each pixel:
$$\begin{align}\alpha_o &= \phantom{~C_a}\alpha_a + \phantom{C_b}\alpha_b(1 - \alpha_a) \\
C_o &= \frac{ C_a \alpha_a + C_b \alpha_b (1 - \alpha_a) }{\alpha_o}
\end{align}$$
Here $C_o$, $C_a$ and $C_b$ stand for the color components of the pixels in the result of the \"over\", image A, and image B respectively, applied to each color channel (red/green/blue) individually, whereas $\alpha_o$, $\alpha_a$ and $\alpha_b$ are the alpha values of the respective pixels.
The **over** operator is, in effect, the normal painting operation (see Painter\'s algorithm). The **in** and **out** operators are the alpha compositing equivalent of clipping. The two use only the alpha channel of the second image and ignore the color components. In addition, **plus** defines additive blending.
## Straight versus premultiplied {#straight_versus_premultiplied}
If an alpha channel is used in an image, there are two common representations that are available: straight (unassociated) alpha and premultiplied (associated) alpha.
- With **straight alpha**, the RGB components represent the color of the object or pixel, disregarding its opacity. This is the method implied by the **over** operator in the previous section.
- With **premultiplied alpha**, the RGB components represent the emission of the object or pixel, and the alpha represents the occlusion. The **over** operator then becomes:
$$C_o = C_a + C_b(1 - \alpha_a)$$
$$\alpha_o = \alpha_a + \alpha_b(1 - \alpha_a)$$
### Comparison
The most significant advantage of premultiplied alpha is that it allows for correct blending, interpolation, and filtering. Ordinary interpolation without premultiplied alpha leads to RGB information leaking out of fully transparent (A=0) regions, even though this RGB information is ideally invisible. When interpolating or filtering images with abrupt borders between transparent and opaque regions, this can result in borders of colors that were not visible in the original image. Errors also occur in areas of semitransparency because the RGB components are not correctly weighted, giving incorrectly high weighting to the color of the more transparent (lower alpha) pixels.
Premultiplied alpha may also be used to allow regions of regular alpha blending (e.g. smoke) and regions with additive blending mode (e.g. flame and glitter effects) to be encoded within the same image. This is represented by an RGBA triplet that express emission with no occlusion, such as (0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.0).
Another advantage of premultiplied alpha is performance; in certain situations, it can reduce the number of multiplication operations (e.g. if the image is used many times during later compositing). The Porter--Duff operations have a simple form only in premultiplied alpha. Some rendering pipelines expose a \"straight alpha\" API surface, but converts them into premultiplied alpha for performance.
One disadvantage of premultiplied alpha is that it can reduce the available relative precision in the RGB values when using integer or fixed-point representation for the color components. This may cause a noticeable loss of quality if the color information is later brightened or if the alpha channel is removed. In practice, this is not usually noticeable because during typical composition operations, such as OVER, the influence of the low-precision color information in low-alpha areas on the final output image (after composition) is correspondingly reduced. This loss of precision also makes premultiplied images easier to compress using certain compression schemes, as they do not record the color variations hidden inside transparent regions, and can allocate fewer bits to encode low-alpha areas. The same "limitations" of lower quantisation bit depths such as 8 bit per channel are also present in imagery without alpha, and this argument is problematic as a result.
### Examples
Assuming that the pixel color is expressed using *straight* (non-premultiplied) RGBA tuples, a pixel value of (0, 0.7, 0, 0.5) implies a pixel that has 70% of the maximum green intensity and 50% opacity. If the color were fully green, its RGBA would be (0, 1, 0, 0.5). However, if this pixel uses premultiplied alpha, all of the RGB values (0, 0.7, 0) are multiplied, or scaled for occlusion, by the alpha value 0.5, which is appended to yield (0, 0.35, 0, 0.5). In this case, the 0.35 value for the G channel actually indicates 70% green emission intensity (with 50% occlusion). A pure green emission would be encoded as (0, 0.5, 0, 0.5). Knowing whether a file uses straight or premultiplied alpha is essential to correctly process or composite it, as a different calculation is required.
Emission with no occlusion cannot be represented in straight alpha. No conversion is available in this case.
## Image formats supporting alpha channels {#image_formats_supporting_alpha_channels}
The most popular image formats that support the alpha channel are PNG and TIFF. GIF supports alpha channels, but is considered to be inefficient when it comes to file size. Support for alpha channels is present in some video codecs, such as Animation and Apple ProRes 4444 of the QuickTime format, or in the Techsmith multi-format codec.
The file format BMP generally does not support this channel; however, in different formats such as 32-bit (888--8) or 16-bit (444--4) it is possible to save the alpha channel, although not all systems or programs are able to read it: it is exploited mainly in some video games or particular applications; specific programs have also been created for the creation of these BMPs.
File/Codec format Maximum Depth Type Browser support Media type Notes
------------------------------------- --------------- ---------- --------------------- --------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Apple ProRes 4444 16-bit None Video (.mov) ProRes is the successor of the Apple Intermediate Codec
HEVC / h.265 10-bit Limited to Safari Video (.hevc) Intended successor to H.264
WebM (codec video VP8, VP9, or AV1) 12-bit All modern browsers Video (.webm) While VP8/VP9 is widely supported with modern browsers, AV1 still has limited support. Only Chromium-based browsers will display alpha layers.
OpenEXR 32-bit None Image (.exr) Has largest HDR spread.
PNG 16-bit straight All modern browsers Image (.png)
APNG 24-bit straight Moderate support Image (.apng) Supports animation.
TIFF 32-bit both None Image (.tiff)
GIF 8-bit All modern browsers Image (.gif) Browsers generally do not support GIF alpha layers.
SVG 32-bit straight All modern browsers Image (.svg) Based on CSS color.
JPEG XL 32-bit both Moderate support Image (.jxl) Allows lossy and HDR.
## Gamma correction {#gamma_correction}
The RGB values of typical digital images do not directly correspond to the physical light intensities, but are rather compressed by a gamma correction function:
: $C_\text{encoded} = C_\text{linear}^{1/\gamma}$
This transformation better utilizes the limited number of bits in the encoded image by choosing $\gamma$ that better matches the non-linear human perception of luminance.
Accordingly, computer programs that deal with such images must decode the RGB values into a linear space (by undoing the gamma-compression), blend the linear light intensities, and re-apply the gamma compression to the result:`{{Failed verification|date=October 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
: *$$C_o = \\left(\\frac{ C_a\^\\gamma \\alpha_a + C_b\^\\gamma \\alpha_b (1 - \\alpha_a) }{\\alpha_o}\\right)\^{1/\\gamma}*
When combined with premultiplied alpha, pre-multiplication is done in linear space, prior to gamma compression. This results in the following formula:
$$C_o = \left( C_a^\gamma + C_b^\gamma (1 - \alpha_a) \right)^{1/\gamma}$$
Note that the alpha channel may or may not undergo gamma-correction, even when the color channels do.
## Other transparency methods {#other_transparency_methods}
Although used for similar purposes, transparent colors and image masks do not permit the smooth blending of the superimposed image pixels with those of the background (only whole image pixels or whole background pixels allowed).
A similar effect can be achieved with a 1-bit alpha channel, as found in the 16-bit RGBA high color mode of the Truevision TGA image file format and related TARGA and AT-Vista/NU-Vista display adapters\' high color graphic mode. This mode devotes 5 bits for every primary RGB color (15-bit RGB) plus a remaining bit as the \"alpha channel\".
Dithering can be used to simulate partial occlusion where only 1-bit alpha is available.
For some applications, a single alpha channel is not sufficient: a stained-glass window, for instance, requires a separate transparency channel for each RGB channel to model the red, green and blue transparency separately. More alpha channels can be added for accurate spectral color filtration applications.
Some order-independent transparency methods replace the **over** operator with a commutative approximation.
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Array (data structure)
|
In computer science, an **array** is a data structure consisting of a collection of *elements* (values or variables), of same memory size, each identified by at least one *array index* or *key*, a collection of which may be a tuple, known as an index tuple. An array is stored such that the position (memory address) of each element can be computed from its index tuple by a mathematical formula. The simplest type of data structure is a linear array, also called a one-dimensional array.
For example, an array of ten 32-bit (4-byte) integer variables, with indices 0 through 9, may be stored as ten words at memory addresses 2000, 2004, 2008, \..., 2036, (in hexadecimal: `0x7D0`, `0x7D4`, `0x7D8`, \..., `0x7F4`) so that the element with index *i* has the address 2000 + (*i* × 4). The memory address of the first element of an array is called first address, foundation address, or base address.
Because the mathematical concept of a matrix can be represented as a two-dimensional grid, two-dimensional arrays are also sometimes called \"matrices\". In some cases the term \"vector\" is used in computing to refer to an array, although tuples rather than vectors are the more mathematically correct equivalent. Tables are often implemented in the form of arrays, especially lookup tables; the word \"table\" is sometimes used as a synonym of array.
Arrays are among the oldest and most important data structures, and are used by almost every program. They are also used to implement many other data structures, such as lists and strings. They effectively exploit the addressing logic of computers. In most modern computers and many external storage devices, the memory is a one-dimensional array of words, whose indices are their addresses. Processors, especially vector processors, are often optimized for array operations.
Arrays are useful mostly because the element indices can be computed at run time. Among other things, this feature allows a single iterative statement to process arbitrarily many elements of an array. For that reason, the elements of an array data structure are required to have the same size and should use the same data representation. The set of valid index tuples and the addresses of the elements (and hence the element addressing formula) are usually, but not always, fixed while the array is in use.
The term \"array\" may also refer to an array data type, a kind of data type provided by most high-level programming languages that consists of a collection of values or variables that can be selected by one or more indices computed at run-time. Array types are often implemented by array structures; however, in some languages they may be implemented by hash tables, linked lists, search trees, or other data structures.
The term is also used, especially in the description of algorithms, to mean associative array or \"abstract array\", a theoretical computer science model (an abstract data type or ADT) intended to capture the essential properties of arrays.
## History
The first digital computers used machine-language programming to set up and access array structures for data tables, vector and matrix computations, and for many other purposes. John von Neumann wrote the first array-sorting program (merge sort) in 1945, during the building of the first stored-program computer. Array indexing was originally done by self-modifying code, and later using index registers and indirect addressing. Some mainframes designed in the 1960s, such as the Burroughs B5000 and its successors, used memory segmentation to perform index-bounds checking in hardware.
Assembly languages generally have no special support for arrays, other than what the machine itself provides. The earliest high-level programming languages, including FORTRAN (1957), Lisp (1958), COBOL (1960), and ALGOL 60 (1960), had support for multi-dimensional arrays, and so has C (1972). In C++ (1983), class templates exist for multi-dimensional arrays whose dimension is fixed at runtime as well as for runtime-flexible arrays.
## Applications
Arrays are used to implement mathematical vectors and matrices, as well as other kinds of rectangular tables. Many databases, small and large, consist of (or include) one-dimensional arrays whose elements are records.
Arrays are used to implement other data structures, such as lists, heaps, hash tables, deques, queues, stacks, strings, and VLists. Array-based implementations of other data structures are frequently simple and space-efficient (implicit data structures), requiring little space overhead, but may have poor space complexity, particularly when modified, compared to tree-based data structures (compare a sorted array to a search tree).
One or more large arrays are sometimes used to emulate in-program dynamic memory allocation, particularly memory pool allocation. Historically, this has sometimes been the only way to allocate \"dynamic memory\" portably.
Arrays can be used to determine partial or complete control flow in programs, as a compact alternative to (otherwise repetitive) multiple `IF` statements. They are known in this context as control tables and are used in conjunction with a purpose-built interpreter whose control flow is altered according to values contained in the array. The array may contain subroutine pointers (or relative subroutine numbers that can be acted upon by SWITCH statements) that direct the path of the execution.
## Element identifier and addressing formulas {#element_identifier_and_addressing_formulas}
When data objects are stored in an array, individual objects are selected by an index that is usually a non-negative scalar integer. Indexes are also called subscripts. An index *maps* the array value to a stored object.
There are three ways in which the elements of an array can be indexed:
0 (*zero-based indexing*): The first element of the array is indexed by subscript of 0.{{cite web
`| access-date = 8 April 2011`\
`| publisher = Computer Programming Web programming Tips`\
`| title = Array Code Examples - PHP Array Functions - PHP code`\
`| quote = In most computer languages array index (counting) starts from 0, not from 1. Index of the first element of the array is 0, index of the second element of the array is 1, and so on. In array of names below you can see indexes and values.`\
`| url = `[`http://www.configure-all.com/arrays.php`](http://www.configure-all.com/arrays.php)\
`| archive-url = `[`https://web.archive.org/web/20110413142103/http://www.configure-all.com/arrays.php`](https://web.archive.org/web/20110413142103/http://www.configure-all.com/arrays.php)\
`| archive-date = 13 April 2011`\
`| url-status = dead`
}}
1 (*one-based indexing*): The first element of the array is indexed by subscript of 1.\
n (*n-based indexing*): The base index of an array can be freely chosen. Usually programming languages allowing *n-based indexing* also allow negative index values and other scalar data types like enumerations, or characters may be used as an array index.
Using zero based indexing is the design choice of many influential programming languages, including C, Java and Lisp. This leads to simpler implementation where the subscript refers to an offset from the starting position of an array, so the first element has an offset of zero.
Arrays can have multiple dimensions, thus it is not uncommon to access an array using multiple indices. For example, a two-dimensional array `A` with three rows and four columns might provide access to the element at the 2nd row and 4th column by the expression `A[1][3]` in the case of a zero-based indexing system. Thus two indices are used for a two-dimensional array, three for a three-dimensional array, and *n* for an *n*-dimensional array.
The number of indices needed to specify an element is called the dimension, dimensionality, or rank of the array.
In standard arrays, each index is restricted to a certain range of consecutive integers (or consecutive values of some enumerated type), and the address of an element is computed by a \"linear\" formula on the indices.
### One-dimensional arrays {#one_dimensional_arrays}
A one-dimensional array (or single dimension array) is a type of linear array. Accessing its elements involves a single subscript which can either represent a row or column index.
As an example consider the C declaration `int anArrayName[10];` which declares a one-dimensional array of ten integers. Here, the array can store ten elements of type `int` . This array has indices starting from zero through nine. For example, the expressions `anArrayName[0]` and `anArrayName[9]` are the first and last elements respectively.
For a vector with linear addressing, the element with index *i* is located at the address `{{nowrap|''B'' + ''c'' · ''i''}}`{=mediawiki}, where *B* is a fixed *base address* and *c* a fixed constant, sometimes called the *address increment* or *stride*.
If the valid element indices begin at 0, the constant *B* is simply the address of the first element of the array. For this reason, the C programming language specifies that array indices always begin at 0; and many programmers will call that element \"zeroth\" rather than \"first\".
However, one can choose the index of the first element by an appropriate choice of the base address *B*. For example, if the array has five elements, indexed 1 through 5, and the base address *B* is replaced by `{{nowrap|''B'' + 30''c''}}`{=mediawiki}, then the indices of those same elements will be 31 to 35. If the numbering does not start at 0, the constant *B* may not be the address of any element.
### Multidimensional arrays {#multidimensional_arrays}
For a multidimensional array, the element with indices *i*,*j* would have address *B* + *c* · *i* + *d* · *j*, where the coefficients *c* and *d* are the *row* and *column address increments*, respectively.
More generally, in a *k*-dimensional array, the address of an element with indices *i*~1~, *i*~2~, \..., *i*~*k*~ is
: *B* + *c*~1~ · *i*~1~ + *c*~2~ · *i*~2~ + ... + *c*~*k*~ · *i*~*k*~.
For example: int a\[2\]\[3\];
This means that array a has 2 rows and 3 columns, and the array is of integer type. Here we can store 6 elements they will be stored linearly but starting from first row linear then continuing with second row. The above array will be stored as a~11~, a~12~, a~13~, a~21~, a~22~, a~23~.
This formula requires only *k* multiplications and *k* additions, for any array that can fit in memory. Moreover, if any coefficient is a fixed power of 2, the multiplication can be replaced by bit shifting.
The coefficients *c*~*k*~ must be chosen so that every valid index tuple maps to the address of a distinct element.
If the minimum legal value for every index is 0, then *B* is the address of the element whose indices are all zero. As in the one-dimensional case, the element indices may be changed by changing the base address *B*. Thus, if a two-dimensional array has rows and columns indexed from 1 to 10 and 1 to 20, respectively, then replacing *B* by `{{nowrap|''B'' + ''c''<sub>1</sub> − 3''c''<sub>2</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} will cause them to be renumbered from 0 through 9 and 4 through 23, respectively. Taking advantage of this feature, some languages (like FORTRAN 77) specify that array indices begin at 1, as in mathematical tradition while other languages (like Fortran 90, Pascal and Algol) let the user choose the minimum value for each index.
### Dope vectors {#dope_vectors}
The addressing formula is completely defined by the dimension *d*, the base address *B*, and the increments *c*~1~, *c*~2~, \..., *c*~*k*~. It is often useful to pack these parameters into a record called the array\'s descriptor, stride vector, or dope vector. The size of each element, and the minimum and maximum values allowed for each index may also be included in the dope vector. The dope vector is a complete handle for the array, and is a convenient way to pass arrays as arguments to procedures. Many useful array slicing operations (such as selecting a sub-array, swapping indices, or reversing the direction of the indices) can be performed very efficiently by manipulating the dope vector.
### Compact layouts {#compact_layouts}
Often the coefficients are chosen so that the elements occupy a contiguous area of memory. However, that is not necessary. Even if arrays are always created with contiguous elements, some array slicing operations may create non-contiguous sub-arrays from them.
There are two systematic compact layouts for a two-dimensional array. For example, consider the matrix
$$A =
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 \\
4 & 5 & 6 \\
7 & 8 & 9
\end{bmatrix}.$$
In the row-major order layout (adopted by C for statically declared arrays), the elements in each row are stored in consecutive positions and all of the elements of a row have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive row:
: {\| class=\"wikitable\"
\|- \| 1 \|\| 2 \|\| 3 \|\| 4 \|\| 5 \|\| 6 \|\| 7 \|\| 8 \|\| 9 \|}
In column-major order (traditionally used by Fortran), the elements in each column are consecutive in memory and all of the elements of a column have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive column:
: {\| class=\"wikitable\"
\|- \| 1 \|\| 4 \|\| 7 \|\| 2 \|\| 5 \|\| 8 \|\| 3 \|\| 6 \|\| 9 \|}
For arrays with three or more indices, \"row major order\" puts in consecutive positions any two elements whose index tuples differ only by one in the *last* index. \"Column major order\" is analogous with respect to the *first* index.
In systems which use processor cache or virtual memory, scanning an array is much faster if successive elements are stored in consecutive positions in memory, rather than sparsely scattered. This is known as spatial locality, which is a type of locality of reference. Many algorithms that use multidimensional arrays will scan them in a predictable order. A programmer (or a sophisticated compiler) may use this information to choose between row- or column-major layout for each array. For example, when computing the product *A*·*B* of two matrices, it would be best to have *A* stored in row-major order, and *B* in column-major order.
### Resizing
Static arrays have a size that is fixed when they are created and consequently do not allow elements to be inserted or removed. However, by allocating a new array and copying the contents of the old array to it, it is possible to effectively implement a *dynamic* version of an array; see dynamic array. If this operation is done infrequently, insertions at the end of the array require only amortized constant time.
Some array data structures do not reallocate storage, but do store a count of the number of elements of the array in use, called the count or size. This effectively makes the array a dynamic array with a fixed maximum size or capacity; Pascal strings are examples of this.
### Non-linear formulas {#non_linear_formulas}
More complicated (non-linear) formulas are occasionally used. For a compact two-dimensional triangular array, for instance, the addressing formula is a polynomial of degree 2.
## Efficiency
Both *store* and *select* take (deterministic worst case) constant time. Arrays take linear (O(*n*)) space in the number of elements *n* that they hold.
In an array with element size *k* and on a machine with a cache line size of B bytes, iterating through an array of *n* elements requires the minimum of ceiling(*nk*/B) cache misses, because its elements occupy contiguous memory locations. This is roughly a factor of B/*k* better than the number of cache misses needed to access *n* elements at random memory locations. As a consequence, sequential iteration over an array is noticeably faster in practice than iteration over many other data structures, a property called locality of reference (this does *not* mean however, that using a perfect hash or trivial hash within the same (local) array, will not be even faster - and achievable in constant time). Libraries provide low-level optimized facilities for copying ranges of memory (such as memcpy) which can be used to move contiguous blocks of array elements significantly faster than can be achieved through individual element access. The speedup of such optimized routines varies by array element size, architecture, and implementation.
Memory-wise, arrays are compact data structures with no per-element overhead. There may be a per-array overhead (e.g., to store index bounds) but this is language-dependent. It can also happen that elements stored in an array require *less* memory than the same elements stored in individual variables, because several array elements can be stored in a single word; such arrays are often called *packed* arrays. An extreme (but commonly used) case is the bit array, where every bit represents a single element. A single octet can thus hold up to 256 different combinations of up to 8 different conditions, in the most compact form.
Array accesses with statically predictable access patterns are a major source of data parallelism.
### Comparison with other data structures {#comparison_with_other_data_structures}
Dynamic arrays or growable arrays are similar to arrays but add the ability to insert and delete elements; adding and deleting at the end is particularly efficient. However, they reserve linear (Θ(*n*)) additional storage, whereas arrays do not reserve additional storage.
Associative arrays provide a mechanism for array-like functionality without huge storage overheads when the index values are sparse. For example, an array that contains values only at indexes 1 and 2 billion may benefit from using such a structure. Specialized associative arrays with integer keys include Patricia tries, Judy arrays, and van Emde Boas trees.
Balanced trees require O(log *n*) time for indexed access, but also permit inserting or deleting elements in O(log *n*) time, whereas growable arrays require linear (Θ(*n*)) time to insert or delete elements at an arbitrary position.
Linked lists allow constant time removal and insertion in the middle but take linear time for indexed access. Their memory use is typically worse than arrays, but is still linear.
An Iliffe vector is an alternative to a multidimensional array structure. It uses a one-dimensional array of references to arrays of one dimension less. For two dimensions, in particular, this alternative structure would be a vector of pointers to vectors, one for each row(pointer on c or c++). Thus an element in row *i* and column *j* of an array *A* would be accessed by double indexing (*A*\[*i*\]\[*j*\] in typical notation). This alternative structure allows jagged arrays, where each row may have a different size---or, in general, where the valid range of each index depends on the values of all preceding indices. It also saves one multiplication (by the column address increment) replacing it by a bit shift (to index the vector of row pointers) and one extra memory access (fetching the row address), which may be worthwhile in some architectures.
## Dimension
The *dimension* of an array is the number of indices needed to select an element. Thus, if the array is seen as a function on a set of possible index combinations, it is the dimension of the space of which its domain is a discrete subset. Thus a one-dimensional array is a list of data, a two-dimensional array is a rectangle of data, a three-dimensional array a block of data, etc.
This should not be confused with the dimension of the set of all matrices with a given domain, that is, the number of elements in the array. For example, an array with 5 rows and 4 columns is two-dimensional, but such matrices form a 20-dimensional space. Similarly, a three-dimensional vector can be represented by a one-dimensional array of size three.
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Automatic number announcement circuit
|
An **automatic number announcement circuit** (**ANAC**) is a component of a central office of a telephone company that provides a service to installation and service technicians to determine the telephone number of a telephone line. The facility has a telephone number that may be called to listen to an automatic announcement that includes the caller\'s telephone number. The ANAC facility is useful primarily during the installation of landline telephones to quickly identify one of multiple wire pairs in a bundle or at a termination point.
## Operation
By connecting a test telephone set, a technician calls the local telephone number of the automatic number announcement service. This call is connected to equipment at the central office that uses automatic equipment to announce the telephone number of the line calling in. The main purpose of this system is to allow telephone company technicians to identify the telephone line they are connected to.
Automatic number announcement systems are based on automatic number identification. They are intended for use by phone company technicians, the ANAC system bypasses customer features, such as unlisted numbers, caller ID blocking, and outgoing call blocking. Installers of multi-line business services where outgoing calls from all lines display the company\'s main number on call display can use ANAC to identify a specific line in the system, even if CID displays every line as \"line one\".
Most ANAC systems are provider-specific in each wire center, while others are regional or state-/province- or area-code-wide. No official lists of ANAC numbers are published, as telephone companies guard against abuse that would interfere with availability for installers.
## Exchange prefixes for testing {#exchange_prefixes_for_testing}
The North American Numbering Plan reserves the exchange (*central office*) prefixes *958* and *959* for plant testing purposes. Code 959 with three or four additional digits is dedicated for access to office test lines in local exchange carrier and interoffice carrier central offices. The specifications define several test features for line conditions, such as quiet line and busy line, and test tones transmitted to callers. Telephone numbers are assigned for ring back to test the ringer when installing telephone sets, milliwatt tone (a number simply answers with a continuous test tone) and a loop around (which connects a call to another inbound call to the same or another test number).
ANAC services are typically installed in the *958* range, which is intended for communications between central offices. In some area codes, multiple additional prefixes may be reserved for test purposes. Many area codes reserved 999; 320 was also formerly reserved in Bell Canada territory.
Other carrier-specific North American test numbers include 555-XXXX numbers (such as 555--0311 on Rogers Communications in Canada) or vertical service codes, such as \*99 on Cablevision/Optimum Voice in the United States. MCI Inc. (United States) provides ANI information by dialing 800-444-4444.
## Telephone numbers {#telephone_numbers}
Plant testing telephone numbers are carrier-specific, there is no comprehensive list of telephone numbers for ANAC services. In some communities, test numbers change relatively often.`{{dubious|date=November 2022}}`{=mediawiki} In others, a major incumbent carrier might assign a single number which provides test functions on its network across an entire numbering plan area, throughout an entire province or state, or system-wide.
Some telecommunication carriers maintain toll-free numbers for ANAC facilities. Some national toll-free numbers provide automatic number identification by speaking the telephone number of the caller, but these are not intended for use in identifying the customer\'s own phone number. They are used for the agent in a call center to confirm the telephone a customer is calling from, so that the customer\'s account information can be displayed as a \"screen pop\" for the next available customer service representative.
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Aristide Maillol
|
**Aristide Joseph Bonaventure Maillol** (`{{IPA|fr|mɑjɔl|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; December 8, 1861 -- September 27, 1944) was a French sculptor, painter, and printmaker.
He began his career as a painter and developed an early interest in the decorative arts. He became primarily interested in sculpture from his early 40s. Maillol was one of the most famous sculptors of his time. His work inspired artists such as Picasso, Henri Matisse and Henry Moore.
## Biography
Maillol was born in Banyuls-sur-Mer, Roussillon. He decided at an early age to become a painter, and moved to Paris in 1881 to study art. After several applications and several years of living in poverty, his enrollment in the École des Beaux-Arts was accepted in 1885, and he studied there under Jean-Léon Gérôme and Alexandre Cabanel. His early paintings show the influence of his contemporaries Pierre Puvis de Chavannes and Paul Gauguin.
Gauguin encouraged his growing interest in decorative art, an interest that led Maillol to take up tapestry design. In 1893 Maillol opened a tapestry workshop in Banyuls, producing works whose high technical and aesthetic quality gained him recognition for renewing this art form in France. He began making small terracotta sculptures in 1895, and within a few years his concentration on sculpture led to the abandonment of his work in tapestry. In July 1896, Maillol married Clotilde Narcis, one of his employees at his tapestry workshop. Their only son, Lucian, was born that October.
Maillol\'s first major sculpture, *A Seated Woman*, was modeled after his wife. The first version (in the Museum of Modern Art, New York) was completed in 1902, and renamed *La Méditerranée*. Maillol, believing that \"art does not lie in the copying of nature\", produced a second, less naturalistic version in 1905. In 1902, the art dealer Ambroise Vollard provided Maillol with his first exhibition.
The subject of nearly all of Maillol\'s mature work is the female body, treated with a classical emphasis on stable forms. The figurative style of his large bronzes is perceived as an important precursor to the greater simplifications of Henry Moore, and his serene classicism set a standard for European (and American) figure sculpture until the end of World War II.
Josep Pla said of Maillol, \"These archaic ideas, Greek, were the great novelty Maillol brought into the tendency of modern sculpture. What you need to love from the ancients is not the antiquity, it is the sense of permanent, renewed novelty, that is due to the nature and reason.\"
His important public commissions include a 1912 commission for a monument to Cézanne, as well as numerous war memorials commissioned after World War I.
Maillol served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal (1919--1954) a grant awarded to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.
He made a series of woodcut illustrations for an edition of Vergil\'s *Eclogues* published by Harry Graf Kessler in 1926--27. He also illustrated *Daphnis and Chloe* by Longus (1937) and *Chansons pour elle* by Paul Verlaine (1939).
He died in Banyuls at the age of eighty-two, in an automobile accident. While driving home during a thunderstorm, the car in which he was a passenger skidded off the road and rolled over. A large collection of Maillol\'s work is maintained at the Musée Maillol in Paris, which was established by Dina Vierny, Maillol\'s model and platonic companion during the last 10 years of his life. His home a few kilometers outside Banyuls, also the site of his final resting place, has been turned into a museum, the Musée Maillol Banyuls-sur-Mer, where a number of his works and sketches are displayed.
Three of his bronzes grace the grand staircase of the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City: *Summer* (1910--11), *Venus Without Arms* (1920), and*Kneeling Woman: Monument to Debussy* (1950--55). The third, the artist\'s only reference to music, is a copy of an original created for the French city of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Claude Debussy\'s birthplace.
## Nazi-looted art {#nazi_looted_art}
During the German occupation of France, dozens of artworks by Maillol were seized by the Nazi looting organization known as the E.R.R. or Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce. The Database of Art Objects at the Jeu de Paume lists thirty artworks by Maillol. The German Lost Art Foundation database lists 33 entries for Maillol. The German Historical Museum\'s database for artworks recovered by the Allies at the Munich Central Collecting Point has 13 items related to Maillol. Maillol\'s sculpture \"Head of Flora\" was found in the stash of Cornelius Gurlitt, son of Hitler\'s art dealer Hildebrand Gurlitt together with lithographs, drawings and paintings.
A photograph from May 24, 1946, shows \"Six men, members of the Monuments, Fine Arts & Archives section of the military, prepare Aristide Maillol\'s sculpture *Baigneuse à la draperie*, looted during World War II for transport to France. Sculpture is labeled with sign: Wiesbaden, no. 31.\"
Jewish art collectors whose artworks by Maillol were looted by Nazis include Hugo Simon, Alfred Flechtheim and many others.
## Works
- Mme Henry Clemens van de Velde (c. 1899)
- *The Mediterranean (1902--05)*
- *Action in Chains* (1905)
- *Flora, Nude* (1910)
- *L\'Été sans bras* (1911)
- *Bathing Woman with Raised Arms* (1921)
- *Nymph* (1930)
- *The Mountain* (1937)
- *L\'Air* (1938)
- *The River* (1938--43)
- *Harmonie* (1944)
- *Femme à l'Echarpe* (circa 1919--20, cast in bronze in edition of 6; certificate of authenticity from model Dina Vierny dated 29.10.1970)
## Legacy and Contemporary Influence {#legacy_and_contemporary_influence}
Aristide Maillol\'s work has had a profound and enduring impact on both modern and contemporary art, particularly within the realms of sculpture, the representation of the human body, and the revival of classical forms in the 20th century. His restrained, monumental approach to the female figure influenced numerous artists, sparking discussions about form, abstraction, and the essence of sculpture itself.
One of Maillol\'s most significant contributions was his rejection of the exaggerated dynamism that characterized much of late 19th-century sculpture, notably the work of his contemporary, Auguste Rodin. Maillol\'s figures, with their serene and stable forms, marked a return to classical simplicity and purity. This approach resonated with artists like Henry Moore, who cited Maillol as an early influence on his own move toward abstraction and monumentality. Moore admired the way Maillol\'s work avoided excessive detail, allowing the essential form of the human body to take precedence. In his 1941 writings, Moore stated, \"Maillol\'s influence was important to me because of the calm and permanence that his figures suggest, as well as his return to classical balance and volume.\" \</ref\>
Additionally, Hans Arp, a Dadaist and Surrealist artist, found inspiration in Maillol\'s organic forms, which he believed offered a \"timeless universality.\" Arp\'s abstracted, rounded sculptures share a kinship with Maillol\'s pursuit of essential, elemental forms, though Arp pushed these ideas further into abstraction.
Art historians such as Hilton Kramer and Albert Elsen have extensively discussed Maillol\'s unique place in modern sculpture. Kramer remarked that Maillol\'s works possess an \"elemental calm\" and reflect an anti-Romantic sentiment, contrasting sharply with the emotional intensity of Rodin. Elsen, in his study of Maillol\'s work, argued that his influence can be seen in the development of modernist sculpture, particularly through his focus on the essential harmony of form and space, a concept that paved the way for mid-century minimalism.
In more recent decades, Maillol\'s sculptures have continued to inspire contemporary artists exploring themes of memory, identity, and the body. The French-Lebanese contemporary artist Oliver Aoun incorporated Maillol\'s sculptures into his project *Lisa Rediviva* (2012), which juxtaposes classical representations of the female form with fragmented images of the Mona Lisa. Aoun\'s work engaged with the legacy of Western iconography, questioning the colonial and patriarchal structures embedded within these revered forms. In reinterpreting Maillol\'s figures, Oliver Aoun critiqued the traditional Western gaze and proposed a more inclusive dialogue around the representation of women in art.
Furthermore, exhibitions such as the 2011 show at the Musée Maillol in Paris, which focused on the dialogue between Maillol and contemporary sculptors, underscore the relevance of his oeuvre in ongoing conversations about the body, space, and abstraction. Artists such as Jean-Michel Othoniel and Louise Bourgeois have also been said to engage with the themes of solidity and fluidity in ways that echo Maillol\'s approach to form.
Maillol\'s influence persists not only in sculpture but also in broader conversations about the role of classical ideals in contemporary art, inviting ongoing re-evaluation and reinterpretation.
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Antonio Canova
|
**Antonio Canova** (`{{IPA|it|anˈtɔːnjo kaˈnɔːva}}`{=mediawiki}; 1 November 1757 -- 13 October 1822) was an Italian Neoclassical sculptor, famous for his marble sculptures. Often regarded as the greatest of the Neoclassical artists, his sculpture was inspired by the Baroque and the classical revival, and has been characterised as having avoided the melodramatics of the former, and the cold artificiality of the latter.
## Life
### Possagno
In 1757, Antonio Canova was born in the Venetian Republic city of Possagno to Pietro Canova, a stonecutter, and Angela Zardo Fantolin. In 1761, his father died. A year later, his mother remarried. In 1762, he was put into the care of his paternal grandfather Pasino Canova, who was a stonemason, owner of a quarry, and was a \"sculptor who specialized in altars with statues and low reliefs in late Baroque style\". He led Antonio into the art of sculpting.
Before the age of ten, Canova began making models in clay, and carving marble. Indeed, at the age of nine, he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble that are still extant. After these works, he appears to have been constantly employed under his grandfather.
### Venice
In 1770, he was an apprentice for two years to Giuseppe Bernardi, who was also known as \'Torretto\'. Afterwards, he was under the tutelage of Giovanni Ferrari until he began his studies at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia. At the academy, he won several prizes. During this time, he was given his first workshop within a monastery by some local monks.
The Senator Giovanni Falier commissioned Canova to produce statues of Orpheus and Eurydice for his garden -- the Villa Falier at Asolo. The statues were begun in 1775, and both were completed by 1777. The pieces exemplify the late Rococo style. On the year of their completion, both works were exhibited for the Feast of the Ascension in Piazza San Marco. Widely praised, the works won Canova his first renown among the Venetian elite. Another Venetian who is said to have commissioned early works from Canova was the abate Filippo Farsetti, whose collection at Ca\' Farsetti on the Grand Canal he frequented.
In 1779, Canova opened his own studio at Calle Del Traghetto at S. Maurizio. At this time, Procurator Pietro Vettor Pisani commissioned Canova\'s first marble statue: a depiction of Daedalus and Icarus. The statue inspired great admiration for his work at the annual art fair; Canova was paid 100 gold zecchini for the completed work. At the base of the statue, Daedalus\' tools are scattered about; these tools are also an allusion to Sculpture, of which the statue is a personification. With such an intention, there is suggestion that Daedalus is a portrait of Canova\'s grandfather Pasino.
### Rome
Canova arrived in Rome, on 28 December 1780. Prior to his departure, his friends had applied to the Venetian Senate for a pension. Successful in the application, the stipend allotted amounted to three hundred ducats, limited to three years.
While in Rome, Canova spent time studying and sketching the works of Michelangelo.
In 1781, Girolamo Zulian -- the Venetian ambassador to Rome -- hired Canova to sculpt *Theseus and the Minotaur*. Zulian played a fundamental role in Canova\'s rise to fame, turning some rooms of his palace into a studio for the artist and placing his trust in him despite Canova\'s early critics in Rome. The statue depicts the victorious Theseus seated on the lifeless body of a Minotaur. The initial spectators were certain that the work was a copy of a Greek original, and were shocked to learn it was a contemporary work. The highly regarded work is now in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, in London.
Between 1783 and 1785, Canova arranged, composed, and designed a funerary monument dedicated to Clement XIV for the Church of Santi Apostoli. After another two years, the work met completion in 1787. The monument secured Canova\'s reputation as the pre-eminent living artist.
In 1792, he completed another cenotaph, this time commemorating Clement XIII for St. Peter\'s Basilica. Canova harmonized its design with the older Baroque funerary monuments in the basilica.
In 1790, he began to work on a funerary monument for Titian, which was eventually abandoned by 1795. During the same year, he increased his activity as a painter. Canova was notoriously disinclined to restore sculptures. However, in 1794 he made an exception for his friend and early patron Zulian, restoring a few sculptures that Zulian had moved from Rome to Venice.
The following decade was extremely productive, beginning works such as *Hercules and Lichas*, *Cupid and Psyche*, *Hebe*, *Tomb of Duchess Maria Christina of Saxony-Teschen*, and *The Penitent Magdalene*.
In 1797, he went to Vienna, but only a year later, in 1798, he returned to Possagno for a year.`{{NoteTag|''The Glory of Venice: Art in the Eighteenth Century'' states (p. 441) that Canova left Venice when it fell, tried to escape to America and then went to Possagno. The fall of Venice was in 1797. There appears to be some gap in knowledge that would correct or amend these accounts. The first reference to Vienna is an online source, the second is the ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911'' which has already proven itself incorrect in some areas. ''The Glory of Venice'' has proven itself more accurate, but it is undated, leaving speculation of time frame.}}`{=mediawiki}
### France and England {#france_and_england}
By 1800, Canova was the most celebrated artist in Europe. He systematically promoted his reputation by publishing engravings of his works and having marble versions of plaster casts made in his workshop. He became so successful that he had acquired patrons from across Europe including France, England, Russia, Austria and Holland, as well as several members from different royal lineages, and prominent individuals. Among his patrons were Napoleon and his family, for whom Canova produced much work, including several depictions between 1803 and 1809. The most notable representations were that of *Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker*, and *Venus Victrix* which was portrayal of Pauline Bonaparte.
*Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker* had its inception after Canova was hired to make a bust of Napoleon in 1802. The statue was begun in 1803, with Napoleon requesting to be shown in a French General\'s uniform, Canova rejected this, insisting on an allusion to Mars, the Roman god of War. It was completed in 1806. In 1811, the statue arrived in Paris, but not installed; neither was its bronze copy in the Foro Napoleonico in Milan. In 1815, the original went to the Duke of Wellington, after his victory at Waterloo against Napoleon.
*Venus Victrix* was originally conceived as a robed and recumbent sculpture of Pauline Borghese in the guise of Diana. Instead, Pauline ordered Canova to make the statue a nude Venus. The work was not intended for public viewing.
Other works for the Napoleon family include, a bust of Napoleon, a statue of Napoleon\'s mother, and Marie Louise as Concordia.
In 1802, Canova was assigned the post of \'Inspector-General of Antiquities and Fine Art of the Papal State\', a position formerly held by Raphael. One of his activities in this capacity was to pioneer the restoration of the Appian Way by restoring the tomb of Servilius Quartus. In 1808 Canova became an associated member of the Royal Institute of Sciences, Literature and Fine Arts of the Kingdom of Holland.
In 1814, he began his *The Three Graces*.
In 1815, he was named \'Minister Plenipotentiary of the Pope,\' and was tasked by Pope Pius VI with recovering various works of art that were taken to Paris by Napoleon under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1815). At the Louvre, he faced resistance to restitution from Director Vivant Denon and, due to the works\' large size or unclear location, was forced to leave behind major pieces, such as Paolo Veronese\'s painting *The Wedding at Cana.*
Also in 1815, he visited London, and met with Benjamin Haydon. It was after the advice of Canova that the Elgin Marbles were acquired by the British Museum, with plaster copies sent to Florence, according to Canova\'s request.
### Returning to Italy {#returning_to_italy}
In 1816, Canova returned to Rome with some of the art Napoleon had taken. He was rewarded with several marks of distinction: he was appointed President of the Accademia di San Luca, inscribed into the \"Golden Book of Roman Nobles\" by the Pope\'s own hands, and given the title of Marquis of Ischia, alongside an annual pension of 3,000 crowns.
In 1819, he commenced and completed his commissioned work *Venus Italica* as a replacement for the Venus de\' Medici.
After his 1814 proposal to build a personified statue of Religion for St. Peter\'s Basilica was rejected, Canova sought to build his own temple to house it. This project came to be the Tempio Canoviano. Canova designed, financed, and partly built the structure himself. The structure was to be a testament to Canova\'s piety. The building\'s design was inspired by combining the Parthenon and the Pantheon together. On 11 July 1819, Canova laid the foundation stone dressed in red Papal uniform and decorated with all his medals. It first opened in 1830, and was finally completed in 1836. After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit Possagno to direct the workmen and encourage them with rewards.
During the period that intervened between commencing operations at Possagno and his death, he executed or finished some of his most striking works. Among these were the group *Mars and Venus*, the colossal figure of Pius VI, the Pietà, the *St John*, and a colossal bust of his friend, the Count Leopoldo Cicognara.
In 1820, he made a statue of George Washington for the state of North Carolina. As recommended by Thomas Jefferson, the sculptor used the marble bust of Washington by Giuseppe Ceracchi as a model. It was delivered on 24 December 1821. The statue and the North Carolina State House where it was displayed were later destroyed by fire in 1831. A plaster replica was sent by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in 1910, now on view at the North Carolina Museum of History. A marble copy was sculpted by Romano Vio in 1970, now on view in the rotunda of the capitol building.
In 1822, he journeyed to Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of Ferdinand VII. The adventure was disastrous to his health, but soon became healthy enough to return to Rome. From there, he voyaged to Venice; however, on 13 October 1822, he died there at the age of 64. As he never married, the name became extinct, except through his stepbrothers\' lineage of Satori-Canova.
On 12 October 1822, Canova instructed his brother to use his entire estate to complete the Tempio in Possagno.
On 25 October 1822, his body was placed in the Tempio Canoviano. His heart was interred at the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice, and his right hand preserved in a vase at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia.
His memorial service was so grand that it rivaled the ceremony that the city of Florence held for Michelangelo in 1564.
In 1826, Giovanni Battista Sartori sold Canova\'s Roman studio and took every plaster model and sculpture to Possagno, where they were installed in the gypsotheque of the Tempio Canoviano.
thumb\|Commemorative plaque at the place of life and death of Antonio Canova, in *Rio Orseolo o del Corval*
## Works
Among Canova\'s most notable works are:
### *Psyche Revived by Cupid\'s Kiss* (1787) {#psyche_revived_by_cupids_kiss_1787}
*Main article: Psyche Revived by Cupid\'s Kiss*
*Psyche Revived by Cupid\'s Kiss* was commissioned in 1787 by Colonel John Campbell. It is regarded as a masterpiece of Neoclassical sculpture, but shows the mythological lovers at a moment of great emotion, characteristic of the emerging movement of Romanticism. It represents the god Cupid in the height of love and tenderness, immediately after awakening the lifeless Psyche with a kiss.
### *Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker* (1802--1806) {#napoleon_as_mars_the_peacemaker_18021806}
*Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker* had its inception after Canova was hired to make a bust of Napoleon in 1802. The statue was begun in 1802, with Napoleon requesting to be shown in a French General\'s uniform, Canova rejected this, insisting on an allusion to Mars, the Roman god of War. It was completed in 1806. In 1811, the statue arrived in Paris, but not installed; neither was its bronze copy in the Foro Napoleonico in Milan. In 1815, the original went to the Duke of Wellington, after his victory at Waterloo against Napoleon and is on display at Apsley House.
### *Perseus Triumphant* (1804--1806) {#perseus_triumphant_18041806}
*Perseus Triumphant*, sometimes called *Perseus with the Head of Medusa*, was a statue commissioned by tribune Onorato Duveyriez. It depicts the Greek hero Perseus after his victory over the Gorgon Medusa.
The statue was based freely on the Apollo Belvedere and the Medusa Rondanini.
Napoleon, after his 1796 Italian Campaign, took the Apollo Belvedere to Paris. In the statue\'s absence, Pope Pius VII acquired Canova\'s *Perseus Triumphant* and placed the work upon the *Apollo*\'s pedestal. The statue was so successful that when the *Apollo* was returned, *Perseus* remained as a companion piece.
One replica of the statue was commissioned from Canova by the Polish countess Waleria Tarnowska; it\'s now displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.
Karl Ludwig Fernow said of the statue that \"every eye must rest with pleasure on the beautiful surface, even when the mind finds its hopes of high and pure enjoyment disappointed.\"
### *Venus Victrix* (1805--1808) {#venus_victrix_18051808}
*Venus Victrix* ranks among the most famous of Canova\'s works. Originally, Canova wished the depiction to be of a robed Diana, but Pauline Borghese insisted to appear as a nude Venus. The work was not intended for public viewing.
### *The Three Graces* (1814--1817) {#the_three_graces_18141817}
*Main article: The Three Graces (Canova)*
John Russell, the 6th Duke of Bedford, commissioned a version of the now famous work. He had previously visited Canova in his studio in Rome in 1814 and had been immensely impressed by a carving of the Graces the sculptor had made for the Empress Joséphine. When the Empress died in May of the same year he immediately offered to purchase the completed piece, but was unsuccessful as Josephine\'s son Eugène de Beauharnais claimed it (his son Maximilian, Duke of Leuchtenberg brought it to St. Petersburg, where it can now be found in the Hermitage Museum). Undeterred, the Duke commissioned another version for himself.
The sculpting process began in 1814 and was completed in 1817. Finally in 1819 it was installed at the Duke\'s residence in Woburn Abbey. Canova even made the trip over to England to supervise its installation, choosing for it to be displayed on a pedestal adapted from a marble plinth with a rotating top. This version is now owned jointly by the Victoria and Albert Museum and the National Galleries of Scotland, and is alternately displayed at each.
## Artistic process {#artistic_process}
Canova had a distinct, signature style in which he combined Greek and Roman art practices with early stirrings of romanticism to delve into a new path of Neoclassicism. Canova\'s sculptures fall into three categories: Heroic compositions, compositions of grace, and sepulchral monuments. In each of these, Canova\'s underlying artistic motivations were to challenge, if not compete, with classical statues.
Canova refused to take in pupils and students, but would hire workers to carve the initial figure from the marble. According to art historian Giuseppe Pavanello, \"Canova\'s system of work concentrated on the initial idea, and on the final carving of the marble\". He had an elaborate system of comparative pointing so that the workers were able to reproduce the plaster form in the selected block of marble. These workers would leave a thin veil over the entire statue so Canova\'s could focus on the surface of the statue.
While he worked, he had people read to him select literary and historical texts.
### Last touch {#last_touch}
During the last quarter of the eighteenth century, it became fashionable to view art galleries at night by torchlight. Canova was an artist that leapt on the fad and displayed his works of art in his studio by candlelight. As such, Canova would begin to finalize the statue with special tools by candlelight, to soften the transitions between the various parts of the nude. After a little recarving, he began to rub the statue down with pumice stone, sometimes for periods longer than weeks or months. If that was not enough, he would use tripoli (rottenstone) and lead.
He then applied a now unknown chemical-composition of patina onto the flesh of the figure to lighten the skin tone. Importantly, his friends also denied any usage of acids in his process.
## Criticisms
Conversations revolving around the justification of art as superfluous usually invoked the name of Canova. Karl Ludwig Fernow believed that Canova was not Kantian enough in his aesthetic, because emphasis seemed to have been placed on agreeableness rather than Beauty. Canova was faulted for creating works that were artificial in complexity.
## Legacy
Although the Romantic period artists buried Canova\'s name soon after he died, he is slowly being rediscovered. Giuseppe Pavanello wrote in 1996 that \"the importance and value of Canova\'s art is now recognized as holding in balance the last echo of the Ancients and the first symptom of the restless experimentation of the modern age\".
Canova spent large parts of his fortune helping young students and sending patrons to struggling sculptors, including Sir Richard Westmacott and John Gibson.
He was introduced into various orders of chivalry.
A number of his works, sketches, and writings are collected in the *Sala Canoviana* of the Museo Civico of Bassano del Grappa. Other works, including plaster casts are the Museo Canoviano in Asolo.
In 2018, a crater on Mercury was named in his honor.
## Literary inspirations {#literary_inspirations}
Two of Canova\'s works appear as engravings in *Fisher\'s Drawing Room Scrap Book*, 1834, with poetical illustrations by Letitia Elizabeth Landon. These are of *The Dancing Girl* and *Hebe*.
### Commemorations
- Canova, South Dakota
- Via Antonio Canova, in Treviso
- Aeroporto di Treviso A. Canova
- The Museo Canova in Possagno
- Tempio Canoviano, in Possagno
## Gallery
Antonio Canova from the studio if Canova c.1813.jpg\|Antonio Canova from the studio of Canova, c. 1813 Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU02.JPG\|*Psyche Revived by Cupid\'s Kiss*, 1787--1793, Louvre Amor-Psyche-Canova-JBU04.JPG\|*Psyche Revived by Cupid\'s Kiss*, 1787--1793, Louvre (detail) Venus Italica by Canova.jpg\|Antonio Canova, Detail of *Venus Italica*, 1804--1812, Galleria Palatina, Florence Antonio Canova Teseo defeats the centaur.jpg\|*Theseus Fighting the Centaur* (1804--1819), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna`{{NoteTag|Napoleon ordered it for the Corso in Milan; Emperor Franz I bought it for the Theseus Temple in the Volksgarten in Vienna; moved to Kunsthistorisches Museum in 1891.}}`{=mediawiki} Antonio canova, danzatrice, ermitage, 01.JPG\|*Dancer*, 1811--1812, The State Hermitage Museum Canova-Three Graces 0 degree view.jpg\|*The Three Graces*, 1814--1817, Hermitage Venus Italica MET DP108444.jpg\|*Venus Italica*, c. 1822--23, Metropolitan Museum of Art Terpsichore by Antonio Canova.jpg\|*Terpsichore Lyran* (Muse of Lyric Poetry) Perseus Canova Pio-Clementino Inv969.jpg\|*Perseus Triumphant*, Vatican Canova, maddalena penitente, 02.JPG\|*The Penitent Magdalene*, Palazzo Doria-Tursi, Genoa Napoleon-Canova-London JBU01.jpg\|*Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker*, Apsley House, London Paolina Borghese (Canova).jpg\|Pauline Bonaparte as *Venus Victrix*, now at the Galleria Borghese Florence, Santa Croce, Antonio Canova, tomb of Vittorio Alfieri, 1810.jpg\|Monumental tomb of Vittorio Alfieri, Santa Croce, Florence, 1810 Tomb Monument of Pius VI Gregorovius.jpg\|Monument to Pius VI Tomb of Pope Clement XIII Gregorovius.jpg\|Tomb of Clement XIII Tomb of Pope Clement XIV Gregorovius.jpg\|Tomb of Pope Clement XIV Frith, Francis (1822-1898) - n. 2340 - Tomb of Marie Christine by Canova - Vienna.jpg\|Cenotaph to Maria Christina of Austria in the Augustinerkirche Antonio Canova Cenotaph of Archduchess Maria Christina Augustinerkirche (Wien) panoramic sculpture Austria 2014 photo Paolo Villa August FOTO8412 - FOTO8425auto.jpg\|Panorama of Cenotaph to Maria Christina of Austria Basilica di Santa Maria dei Frari interno - Monumento di Canova.jpg\|Monument to Canova in the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, designed by Canova as a mausoleum for the painter Titian Italy, Antonio Canova Medal by Putinati.jpg\|Antonio Canova medal by Putinati (Venice) Maschera funebre di Antonio Canova - Gesso - Museo Correr.jpg \|Antonio Canova\'s funeral mask, Museo Correr
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Act of Settlement 1701
|
The **Act of Settlement** (12 & 13 Will. 3. c. 2) is an act of the Parliament of England that settled the succession to the English and Irish crowns to only Protestants, which passed in 1701. More specifically, anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, became disqualified to inherit the throne. This had the effect of deposing the remaining descendants of Charles I, other than his Protestant granddaughter Anne, as the next Protestant in line to the throne was Sophia of Hanover. Born into the House of Wittelsbach, she was a granddaughter of James VI and I from his most junior surviving line, with the crowns descending only to her non-Catholic heirs. Sophia died less than two months before Queen Anne, and Sophia\'s son succeeded to the throne as King George I, starting the Hanoverian dynasty in Britain.
The Act of Supremacy 1558 (1 Eliz. 1. c. 1) had confirmed the independence of the Church of England from Roman Catholicism under the English monarch. One of the principal factors which contributed to the Glorious Revolution was the perceived assaults made on the Church of England by King James II, a Roman Catholic, who was deposed in favour of his Protestant daughter Mary II and her husband William III. The need for this Act of Settlement was prompted by the inability of William and Mary, as well as of Mary\'s Protestant sister (the future Queen Anne), to produce any surviving children, and by the perceived threat posed by the pretensions to the throne by remaining Roman Catholic members of the House of Stuart.
The act played a key role in the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain as, though England and Scotland had shared a monarch since 1603, they had remained separately governed countries, with the Act catalysing the Union of England and Scotland. However, the Parliament of Scotland was more reluctant to abandon the House of Stuart, members of which had been Scottish monarchs long before they became English. Moreover, the Act also placed limits on both the role of foreigners in the British government and the power of the monarch with respect to the Parliament of England, though some of those provisions have been altered by subsequent legislation.
Along with the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement remains today one of the main constitutional laws governing the succession not only to the throne of the United Kingdom, but to those of the other Commonwealth realms, whether by assumption or by patriation. The Act of Settlement cannot be altered in any realm except by that realm\'s own parliament and, by convention, only with the consent of all the other realms, as it touches on the succession to the shared crown. On 26 March 2015, following the Perth Agreement, legislation amending the Act came into effect across the Commonwealth realms that removed the disqualification arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic and instituted absolute primogeniture.
## Background
Following the Glorious Revolution, the line of succession to the English throne was governed by the Bill of Rights 1689, which declared that the flight of James II from England to France during the revolution amounted to an abdication of the throne and that James\'s daughter Mary II and her husband/cousin, William III (William of Orange, who was also James\'s nephew), were James\'s successors. The Bill of Rights also provided that the line of succession would go through Mary\'s Protestant descendants by William and any possible future husband should she outlive him, then through Mary\'s sister Anne and her Protestant descendants, and then to the Protestant descendants of William III by a possible later marriage should he outlive Mary. During the debate, the House of Lords had attempted to append Sophia and her descendants to the line of succession, but the amendment failed in the Commons.
Mary II died childless in 1694, after which William III did not remarry. In 1700, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was Anne\'s only child to survive infancy, died of what may have been smallpox at the age of 11. Thus, Anne was left as the only person in line to the throne. The Bill of Rights excluded Catholics from the throne, which ruled out James II and his children (as well as their descendants) sired after he converted to Catholicism in 1668. However, it did not provide for the further succession after Anne. Parliament thus saw the need to settle the succession on Sophia and her descendants, and thereby guarantee the continuity of the Crown in the Protestant line.
With religion and lineage initially decided, the ascendancy of William of Orange in 1689 would also bring his partiality to his Dutch favourites that followed. By 1701, anti-Dutch sentiment was widespread in England and action was considered necessary.
## The act {#the_act}
The Act of Settlement provided that the throne would pass to the Electress Sophia of Hanover -- a granddaughter of James VI and I and a niece of King Charles I -- and her descendants, but it excluded \"for ever\" \"all and every Person and Persons who \... is are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish Religion or shall marry a Papist\". Thus, those who were Roman Catholics, and those who married Roman Catholics, were barred from ascending the throne.
### Conditional provisions {#conditional_provisions}
The act contained eight additional provisions that were to only come into effect upon the death of both William and Anne:
Firstly, the monarch \"shall join in communion with the Church of England\". This was intended to ensure the exclusion of a Roman Catholic monarch. Along with James II\'s perceived despotism, his religion was the main cause of the Glorious Revolution, and of the previous linked religious and succession problems which had been resolved by the joint monarchy of William III and Mary II.
Second, if a person not native to England comes to the throne, England will not wage war for \"any dominions or territories which do not belong to the Crown of England, without the consent of Parliament\". This would become relevant when a member of the House of Hanover ascended the British throne, as he would retain the territories of the Electorate of Hanover in what is now Lower Saxony (Germany), then part of the Holy Roman Empire. This provision has been dormant since Queen Victoria ascended the throne, because she did not inherit Hanover under the Salic Laws of the German-speaking states.
Third, no monarch may leave \"the dominions of England, Scotland, or Ireland\", without the consent of Parliament. This provision was repealed in 1716, at the request of George I who was also the Elector of Hanover and Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg within the Holy Roman Empire; because of this, and also for personal reasons, he wished to visit Hanover from time to time.
Fourth, all government matters within the jurisdiction of the Privy Council were to be transacted there, and all council resolutions were to be signed by those who advised and consented to them. This was because Parliament wanted to know who was deciding policies, as sometimes councillors\' signatures normally attached to resolutions were absent. This provision was repealed early in Queen Anne\'s reign, as many councillors ceased to offer advice and some stopped attending meetings altogether.
Fifth, no foreigner (\"no Person born out of the Kingdoms of England Scotland or Ireland or the Dominions thereunto belonging\"), even if naturalised or made a denizen (unless born of English parents), can be a Privy Councillor or a member of either House of Parliament, or hold \"any Office or Place of Trust, either Civill `{{sic}}`{=mediawiki} or Military, or to `{{sic}}`{=mediawiki} have any Grant of Lands, Tenements or Hereditaments from the Crown, to himself or to any other or others in Trust for him\". Subsequent nationality laws (today primarily the British Nationality Act 1981) made naturalised citizens the equal of those native born, and excluded Commonwealth citizens from the definition of foreigners, and citizens of the Irish Republic from the definition of aliens, but otherwise this provision still applies. It has however been disapplied in particular cases by a number of other statutes.
Sixth, no person who has an office under the monarch, or receives a pension from the Crown, was to be a Member of Parliament. This provision was inserted to avoid unwelcome royal influence over the House of Commons. It remains in force, but with several exceptions; ministers of the Crown were exempted early on before Anne\'s death in order to continue some degree of royal patronage, but had to stand for a by-election to re-enter the House upon such appointment until 1926. As a side effect, this provision means that members of the Commons seeking to resign from parliament can get around the prohibition on resignation by obtaining a sinecure in the control of the Crown; while several offices have historically been used for this purpose, two are currently in use: appointments generally alternate between the stewardships of the Chiltern Hundreds and of the Manor of Northstead.
Seventh, judges\' commissions are valid *quamdiu se bene gesserint* (during good behaviour) and if they do not behave themselves, they can be removed only by both Houses of Parliament (or in other Commonwealth realms the one House of Parliament, depending on the legislature\'s structure). This provision was the result of various monarchs influencing judges\' decisions, and its purpose was to assure judicial independence. This patent was used prior to 1701 but did not prevent Charles I from removing Sir John Walter as Chief Baron of the Exchequer.
Eighth, that \"no Pardon under the Great Seal of England be pleadable to an Impeachment by the Commons in Parliament\". This meant in effect that no pardon by the monarch was to save someone from being impeached by the House of Commons.
### Family tree {#family_tree}
## Opposition
The Tory administration that replaced the Whig Junto in 1699 took responsibility for steering the Act through Parliament. As a result, it passed with little opposition, although five peers voted against it in the House of Lords, including the Earl of Huntingdon, his brother-in-law the Earl of Scarsdale and three others. While many shared their opposition to a \"foreign\" king, the general feeling was summed up as \"better a German prince than a French one\".
## Legacy
For different reasons, various constitutionalists have praised the Act of Settlement: Henry Hallam called the Act \"the seal of our constitutional laws\" and David Lindsay Keir placed its importance above the Bill of Rights of 1689. Naamani Tarkow wrote: \"If one is to make sweeping statements, one may say that, save Magna Carta (more truly, its implications), the Act of Settlement is probably the most significant statute in English history\".
### Union of Scotland with England and Wales {#union_of_scotland_with_england_and_wales}
The Act of Settlement was, in many ways, the major cause of the union of Scotland with England and Wales to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Parliament of Scotland had not been consulted about the Act of Settlement, and, in response, passed the Act of Security 1704, through which Scotland reserved the right to choose its own successor to Queen Anne. Stemming from this, the Parliament of England decided that, to ensure the stability and future prosperity of Great Britain, full union of the two parliaments and nations was essential before Anne\'s death.
It used a combination of exclusionary legislation (the Alien Act 1705), politics, and bribery to achieve this within three years under the Act of Union 1707. This success was in marked contrast to the four attempts at political union between 1606 and 1689, which all failed owing to a lack of political will in both kingdoms. By virtue of Article II of the Treaty of Union, which defined the succession to the throne of Great Britain, the Act of Settlement became part of Scots law as well.
### Succession to the Crown {#succession_to_the_crown}
In addition to excluding James II, who died a few months after the act received royal assent, and his Roman Catholic children, Prince James (*The Old Pretender*) and the Princess Royal, the Act also excluded the descendants of Princess Henrietta, the youngest sister of James II. Henrietta\'s only child with surviving issue was Anne, Queen of Sardinia, a Roman Catholic, from whom descend all Jacobite pretenders after 1807.
With the legitimate descendants of Charles I either childless (in the case of his two grand-daughters the late Queen Mary II and her successor Queen Anne) or Roman Catholic, Parliament\'s choice was limited to Sophia of Hanover, the Protestant daughter of the late Elizabeth of Bohemia, the only other child of King James I to have survived childhood. Elizabeth had borne nine children who reached adulthood, of whom Sophia was the youngest daughter. However in 1701 Sophia was the senior Protestant one, therefore with a legitimate claim to the English throne; Parliament passed over her Roman Catholic siblings, namely her sister Louise Hollandine of the Palatinate, and their descendants, who included Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchess of Orléans; Louis Otto, Prince of Salm, and his aunts; Anne Henriette, Princess of Condé, and Benedicta Henrietta, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
### Removal from the succession due to Catholicism {#removal_from_the_succession_due_to_catholicism}
Since the act\'s passing the most senior living member of the royal family to have married a Roman Catholic, and thereby to have been removed from the line of succession, is Prince Michael of Kent, who married Baroness Marie-Christine von Reibnitz in 1978; he was fifteenth in the line of succession at the time. He was restored to the line of succession in 2015 when the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 came into force, and became 34th in line.
The next most senior living descendant of the Electress Sophia who had been ineligible to succeed on this ground is George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews, the elder son of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, who married the Roman Catholic Sylvana Palma Tomaselli in 1988. His son, Lord Downpatrick, converted to Roman Catholicism in 2003 and is the most senior descendant of Sophia to be barred as a result of his religion. In 2008 his daughter, Lady Marina Windsor, also converted to Catholicism and was removed from the line of succession. More recently, Peter Phillips, the son of Anne, Princess Royal, and eleventh in line to the throne, married Autumn Kelly; Kelly had been brought up as a Roman Catholic, but she converted to Anglicanism prior to the wedding. Had she not done so, Phillips would have forfeited his place in the succession upon their marriage, only to have it restored in 2015.
Excluding those princesses who have married into Roman Catholic royal families, such as Marie of Edinburgh, Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg and Princess Beatrice of Edinburgh, one member of the Royal Family (that is, with the style of *Royal Highness*) has converted to Roman Catholicism since the passage of the Act: the Duchess of Kent, wife of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, who converted on 14 January 1994, but her husband did not lose his place in the succession because she was an Anglican at the time of their marriage.
### Present status {#present_status}
As well as being part of the law of the United Kingdom, the Act of Settlement was received into the laws of all the countries and territories over which the British monarch reigned. It remains part of the laws of the 15 Commonwealth realms and the relevant jurisdictions within those realms. In accordance with established convention, the Statute of Westminster 1931 and later laws, the Act of Settlement (along with the other laws governing the succession of the Commonwealth realms) may only be changed with the agreement of all the realms (and, in some federal realms, the constituent members of those federations). The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 changed many provisions of this Act.
## Amendment proposals {#amendment_proposals}
Challenges have been made against the Act of Settlement, especially its provisions regarding Roman Catholics and preference for males. However, changing the act is a complex process, since the act governs the shared succession of all the Commonwealth realms. The Statute of Westminster 1931 acknowledges by established convention that any changes to the rules of succession may be made only with the agreement of all of the states involved, with concurrent amendments to be made by each state\'s parliament or parliaments. Further, as the current monarch\'s eldest child and, in turn, his eldest child, are Anglican males, any change to the succession laws would have no immediate implications. Consequently, there was little public concern with the issues and debate had been confined largely to academic circles until the November 2010 announcement that Prince William was to marry. This raised the question of what would happen if he were to produce first a daughter and then a son.
*The Times* reported on 6 November 1995 that Prince Charles had said on that day to Tony Blair and Paddy Ashdown that \"Catholics should be able to ascend to the British throne\". Ashdown claimed the Prince said: \"I really can\'t think why we can\'t have Catholics on the throne\". In 1998, during debate on a Succession to the Crown Bill, Junior Home Office Minister Lord Williams of Mostyn informed the House of Lords that the Queen had \"no objection to the Government\'s view that in determining the line of succession to the throne, daughters and sons should be treated in the same way.\"
### Australia
In October 2011 the Australian federal government was reported to have reached an agreement with all of the states on potential changes to their laws in the wake of amendments to the Act of Settlement. The practice of the Australian states---for example, New South Wales and Victoria---has been, when legislating to repeal some imperial statutes so far as they still applied in Australia, to provide that imperial statutes concerning the royal succession remain in force.
The legal process required at the federal level remains, theoretically, unclear. The Australian constitution, as was noted during the crisis of 1936, contains no power for the federal parliament to legislate with respect to the monarchy. Everything thus turns upon the status and meaning of clause 2 in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, which provides: \"The provisions of this Act referring to the Queen shall extend to Her Majesty\'s heirs and successors in the sovereignty of the United Kingdom.\"
Anne Twomey reviews three possible interpretations of the clause.
- First: it \"mandates that whoever is the sovereign of the United Kingdom is also, by virtue of this external fact, sovereign of Australia\"; accordingly, changes to British succession laws would have no effect on Australian law,`{{dubious|date=June 2021}}`{=mediawiki} but if the British amendment changed the sovereign, then the new sovereign of the United Kingdom would automatically become the new sovereign of Australia.
- Second, it is \"merely an interpretative provision\", operating to ensure that references to \"the Queen\" in the Constitution are references to whoever may at the time be the incumbent of the \"sovereignty of the United Kingdom\" as determined with regard to Australia, following the Australia Act 1986, by Australian law.
- Or, third, it incorporates the United Kingdom rules of succession into the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, which itself can now be altered only by Australia, according to the Australia Act 1986; in that way, the British rules of succession have been patriated to Australia and, with regard to Australia, are subject to amendment or repeal solely by Australian law.
However, Twomey expresses confidence that, if the High Court of Australia were to be faced with the problems of covering clause 2, it would find some way to conclude that, with regard to Australia, the clause is subject solely to Australian law. Canadian scholar Richard Toporoski theorised in 1998 that \"if, let us say, an alteration were to be made in the United Kingdom to the Act of Settlement 1701, providing for the succession of the Crown\... \[i\]t is my opinion that the domestic constitutional law of Australia or Papua New Guinea, for example, would provide for the succession in those countries of the same person who became Sovereign of the United Kingdom.\"
In practice, when legislating for the Perth Agreement (see below), the Australian governments took the approach of the states requesting, and referring power to, the federal government to enact the legislation on behalf of the states (under paragraph 51(xxxviii) of the Australian Constitution) and the Commonwealth of Australia.
### Canada
In Canada, where the Act of Settlement (*Acte d\'établissement*) is now a part of Canadian constitutional law, Tony O\'Donohue, a Canadian civic politician, took issue with the provisions that exclude Roman Catholics from the throne, and which make the monarch of Canada the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, requiring him or her to be an Anglican. This, he claimed, discriminated against non-Anglicans, including Catholics, who are the largest faith group in Canada. In 2002, O\'Donohue launched a court action that argued the Act of Settlement violated the *Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*, but, the case was dismissed by the court. It found that, as the Act of Settlement is part of the Canadian constitution, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, as another part of the same constitution, does not have supremacy over it. Also, the court noted that, while Canada has the power to amend the line of succession to the Canadian throne, the Statute of Westminster stipulates that the agreement of the governments of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms that share the Crown would first have to be sought if Canada wished to continue its relationship with these countries. An appeal of the decision was dismissed on 16 March 2005. Some commentators state that, as a result of this, any single provincial legislature could hinder any attempts to change this Act, and by extension, to the line of succession for the shared crown of all 16 Commonwealth realms. Others contend that that is not the case, and changes to the succession instituted by an Act of the Parliament of Canada \"\[in accord\] with the convention of symmetry that preserves the personal unity of the British and Dominion Crowns\".
With the announcement in 2007 of the engagement of Peter Phillips to Autumn Kelly, a Roman Catholic and a Canadian, discussion about the Act of Settlement was revived. Norman Spector called in *The Globe and Mail* for Prime Minister Stephen Harper to address the issue of the Act\'s bar on Catholics, saying Phillips\' marriage to Kelly would be the first time the provisions of the Act would bear directly on Canada---Phillips would be barred from acceding to the Canadian throne because he married a Roman Catholic Canadian. (In fact, Lord St Andrews had already lost his place in the line of succession when he married the Roman Catholic Canadian Sylvana Palma Tomaselli in 1988. But St Andrews\' place in the line of succession was significantly lower than Phillips\'.) Criticism of the Act of Settlement due to the Phillips--Kelly marriage was muted when Autumn Kelly converted to Anglicanism shortly before her marriage, thus preserving her husband\'s place in the line of succession.
### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom}
From time to time there has been debate over repealing the clause that prevents Roman Catholics, or those who marry one, from ascending to the British throne. Proponents of repeal argue that the clause is a bigoted anachronism; Cardinal Winning, who was leader of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland, called the act an \"insult\" to Catholics. Cardinal Murphy-O\'Connor, the leader of the Roman Catholic Church in England, pointed out that Prince William (later the Duke of Cambridge) \"can marry by law a Hindu, a Buddhist, anyone, but not a Roman Catholic.\" Opponents of repeal, such as Enoch Powell and Adrian Hilton, believe that it would lead to the disestablishment of the Church of England as the state religion if a Roman Catholic were to come to the throne. They also note that the monarch must swear to defend the faith and be a member of the Anglican Communion, but that a Roman Catholic monarch would, like all Roman Catholics, owe allegiance to the Pope. This would, according to opponents of repeal, amount to a loss of sovereignty for the Anglican Church.
When in December 1978 there was media speculation that Prince Charles might marry a Roman Catholic, Powell defended the provision that excludes Roman Catholics from ascending the throne, stating his objection was not rooted in religious bigotry but in political considerations. He said a Roman Catholic monarch would mean the acceptance of a source of authority external to the realm and \"in the literal sense, foreign to the Crown-in-Parliament \... Between Roman Catholicism and royal supremacy there is, as Saint Thomas More concluded, no reconciliation.\" Powell concluded that a Roman Catholic crown would be the destruction of the Church of England because \"it would contradict the essential character of that church.\"
He continued:
> When Thomas Hobbes wrote that \"the Papacy is no other than the ghost of the deceased Roman Empire sitting crowned upon the grave thereof\", he was promulgating an enormously important truth. Authority in the Roman Church is the exertion of that *imperium* from which England in the 16th century finally and decisively declared its national independence as the *alter imperium*, the \"other empire\", of which Henry VIII declared \"This realm of England is an empire\" \... It would signal the beginning of the end of the British monarchy. It would portend the eventual surrender of everything that has made us, and keeps us still, a nation.
The Scottish Parliament unanimously passed a motion in 1999 calling for the complete removal of any discrimination linked to the monarchy and the repeal of the Act of Settlement. The following year, *The Guardian* challenged the succession law in court, claiming that it violated the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides,
> The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth, or other status.
As the Convention nowhere lists the right to succeed to the Crown as a human right, the challenge was rejected.
Adrian Hilton, writing in *The Spectator* in 2003, defended the Act of Settlement as not \"irrational prejudice or blind bigotry\", but claimed that it was passed because \"the nation had learnt that when a Roman Catholic monarch is upon the throne, religious and civil liberty is lost.\" He points to the Pope\'s claiming universal jurisdiction, and Hilton argues that \"it would be intolerable to have, as the sovereign of a Protestant and free country, one who owes any allegiance to the head of any other state\" and contends that, if such situation came about, \"we will have undone centuries of common law.\" He said that because the Roman Catholic Church does not recognise the Church of England as an apostolic church, a Roman Catholic monarch who abided by their faith\'s doctrine would be obliged to view Anglican and Church of Scotland archbishops, bishops, and clergy as part of the laity and therefore \"lacking the ordained authority to preach and celebrate the sacraments.\" (Hilton noted that the Church of Scotland\'s Presbyterian polity does not include bishops or archbishops.) Hilton said a Roman Catholic monarch would be unable to be crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury and notes that other European states have similar religious provisions for their monarchs: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, whose constitutions compel their monarchs to be Lutherans; the Netherlands, which has a constitution requiring its monarchs be members of the Protestant House of Orange; and Belgium, which has a constitution that provides for the succession to be through Roman Catholic houses.
In December 2004, a private member\'s bill---the Succession to the Crown Bill---was introduced in the House of Lords. The government, headed by Tony Blair, blocked all attempts to revise the succession laws, claiming it would raise too many constitutional issues and it was unnecessary at the time. In the British general election the following year, Michael Howard promised to work towards having the prohibition removed if the Conservative Party gained a majority of seats in the House of Commons, but the election was won by Blair\'s Labour Party. Four years later, plans drawn up by Chris Bryant were revealed that would end the exclusion of Catholics from the throne and end the doctrine of male-preference primogeniture in favour of absolute primogeniture, which governs succession solely on birth order and not on sex. The issue was raised again in January 2009, when a private member\'s bill to amend the Act of Succession was introduced in parliament.
### Across the realms {#across_the_realms}
In early 2011 Keith Vaz, a Labour Member of Parliament, introduced to the House of Commons at Westminster a private member\'s bill which proposed that the Act of Settlement be amended to remove the provisions relating to Roman Catholicism and change the primogeniture governing the line of succession to the British throne from male-preference to absolute cognatic. Vaz sought support for his project from the Canadian Cabinet and Prime Minister Stephen Harper, but the Office of the Prime Minister of Canada responded that the issue was \"not a priority for the government or for Canadians without further elaboration on the merits or drawbacks of the proposed reforms\". Stephenson King, Prime Minister of Saint Lucia, said he supported the idea and it was reported that the government of New Zealand did, as well. The Monarchist League of Canada said at the time to the media that it \"supports amending the Act of Settlement in order to modernize the succession rules.\"
Later the same year, the Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Nick Clegg, announced that the government was considering a change in the law. At approximately the same time, it was reported that British Prime Minister David Cameron had written to each of the prime ministers of the other fifteen Commonwealth realms, asking for their support in changing the succession to absolute primogeniture and notifying them he would raise his proposals at that year\'s Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Perth, Australia. Cameron reportedly also proposed removing the restriction on successors being or marrying Roman Catholics; however, potential Roman Catholic successors would be required to convert to Anglicanism prior to acceding to the throne. In reaction to the letter and media coverage, Harper stated that, this time, he was \"supportive\" of what he saw as \"reasonable modernizations\".
At the 2011 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting on 28 October 2011, the prime ministers of the other Commonwealth realms agreed to support Cameron\'s proposed changes to the Act. The bill put before the Parliament of the United Kingdom would act as a model for the legislation required to be passed in at least some of the other realms, and any changes would only first take effect if the Duke of Cambridge were to have a daughter before a son.
The British group Republic asserted that succession reform would not make the monarchy any less discriminatory. As it welcomed the gender equality reforms, the British newspaper *The Guardian* criticized the lack of a proposal to remove the ban on Catholics sitting on the throne, as did Alex Salmond, First Minister of Scotland, who pointed out that \"It is deeply disappointing that the reform \[of the Act of Settlement of 1701\] has stopped short of removing the unjustifiable barrier on a Catholic becoming monarch.\" On the subject, Cameron asserted: \"Let me be clear, the monarch must be in communion with the Church of England because he or she is the head of that Church.\"
The disqualification arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic was removed by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013.
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A Fire Upon the Deep
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***A Fire Upon the Deep*** is a 1992 science fiction novel by American writer Vernor Vinge. It is a space opera involving superhuman intelligences, aliens, variable physics, space battles, love, betrayal, genocide, and a communication medium resembling Usenet. *A Fire Upon the Deep* won the Hugo Award in 1993, sharing it with *Doomsday Book* by Connie Willis.
Besides the normal print book editions, the novel was also included on a CD-ROM sold by ClariNet Communications along with the other nominees for the 1993 Hugo awards. The CD-ROM edition included numerous annotations by Vinge on his thoughts and intentions about different parts of the book, and was later released as a standalone e-book. It has a loose prequel, *A Deepness in the Sky*, from 1999, and a direct sequel, *The Children of the Sky*, from 2012.
## Setting
The novel is set in various locations in the Milky Way. The galaxy is divided into four concentric volumes called the \"Zones of Thought\"; it is not clear to the novel\'s characters whether this is a natural phenomenon or an artificially produced one, but it seems to roughly correspond with galactic-scale stellar density and a Beyond region is mentioned in the Sculptor Galaxy as well. The Zones reflect fundamental differences in basic physical laws, and one of the main consequences is their effect on intelligence, both biological and artificial. Artificial intelligence and automation is most directly affected, in that advanced hardware and software from the Beyond or the Transcend will work less and less well as a ship \"descends\" towards the Unthinking Depths. But even biological intelligence is affected to a lesser degree. The four zones are spoken of in terms of \"low\" to \"high\" as follows:
- The **Unthinking Depths** are the innermost zone, surrounding the Galactic Center. In it, only minimal forms of intelligence, biological or otherwise, are possible. This means that any ship straying into the Depths will be stranded, effectively permanently. Even if the crew did not die immediately---and some forms of life native to \"higher\" Zones would likely do so---they would be rendered incapable of even human intelligence, leaving them unable to operate their ship in any meaningful way.
- Surrounding the Depths is the **Slow Zone**. \"Old Earth\" is in this Zone, and humanity is said to have originated there, although Earth plays no significant role in the story. Biological intelligence is possible in \"the Slowness\", but not true, sentient, artificial intelligence. Automation is not intelligent enough to calculate the jumps required for faster than light travel (FTL) in the Slow Zone, but they may escape by performing an immediate reverse jump to where they came from if the Slowness is detected, and navigation systems watch for this and store the information required during each jump. All ships in the Slow Zone are restricted to sub-light speeds. Faster-than-light communication is impossible into or out of the Slow Zone. As the boundaries of the Zones are subject to change, accidental entry into the Slow Zone is a major hazard at the \"Bottom\" of the Beyond, the next zone out. Starships which operate near the Beyond/Slow Zone border often have an auxiliary Bussard ramjet drive, so that if they accidentally stray into the Slow Zone (thus disabling any FTL drive), they will at least have a backup (sub-light) drive to try to reach the Beyond. Such ships also tend to include \"coldsleep\" equipment, as it is likely that any such return will still take many lifetimes for most species.
- The next layer outward is the **Beyond**, within which artificial intelligence and FTL travel and FTL communication are possible. A few human civilizations exist in the Beyond, all descended from a single ethnic Norwegian group which reached the Beyond. The original settlement of this group is known as Nyjora; other human settlements in the Beyond include Straumli Realm and Sjandra Kei. In the Beyond, FTL travel is accomplished by making many small \"jumps\" across space, with the efficiency of the drive increasing the farther a ship travels from the galactic core. This reflects increases in both drive efficiency and the ship\'s automation\'s increased capacity, enabling the computation of longer and longer jumps. The Beyond is not a homogeneous zone---many references are made to, e.g., the \"High Beyond\" or the \"Bottom of the Beyond\", depending on distance from the galactic core. These terms refer to differences in the Zone itself, not just relative distance from the Core, but there are no obvious Zone boundaries within the Beyond the way there are between the Slow Zone and the Beyond, or between the Beyond and the Transcend. Whereas a ship that crosses from the Beyond to the Slow Zone or vice versa will experience a dramatic change in its capabilities, a ship in the Beyond which moves farther out will experience a gradual increase in efficiency (assuming it has the technology to make use of it) until another major shift at the boundary with the Transcend. The Beyond is populated by a very large number of interstellar and intergalactic civilizations which are linked by an FTL communication network, \"the Net\", sometimes cynically called the \"Net of a Million Lies\". The Net does connect with the Transcend, on the off-chance that one of the \"Powers\" that live there deigns to communicate, but has no connections with the Slow Zone, as FTL communication is impossible into or out of that Zone. In the novel, the Net is depicted as working much like the Usenet network in the early 1990s, with transcripts of messages containing header and footer information as one would find in such forums.
- The outermost layer, containing the galactic halo, is the **Transcend**, within which incomprehensible, superintelligent beings dwell. When a \"Beyonder\" civilization reaches the point of technological singularity, it can \"Transcend\", becoming a \"Power\". Such Powers always seem to relocate to the Transcend, seemingly necessarily, where they become engaged in activities which are entirely mysterious to those in the Beyond.
One of the characters in the book, the human Ravna, uses this analogy to explain the relation between the zones:
## Plot
An expedition from Straumli Realm, a young human civilization in the high Beyond, investigates a newly discovered five-billion-year-old data archive in the low Transcend that offers the possibility of unimaginable riches. The expedition\'s facility, High Lab, is gradually and secretly compromised by an initially dormant superintelligence within the archive later known as the Blight. However, shortly before the Blight\'s final \"flowering\", two self-aware entities, created similarly to the Blight, plot to aid the humans before the Blight can gain its full powers.
Finally recognizing their danger, the High Lab researchers attempt to flee in two ships, one carrying the adults and the second carrying the children in \"coldsleep boxes\". The Blight discovers that the first ship lists a data storage device in its cargo manifest; assuming it contains information that could harm it, the Blight destroys the ship. The second ship escapes.
The ship lands on a distant planet with a medieval-level civilization of dog-like creatures, dubbed \"Tines\", who live in packs as group minds. Upon landing, however, the two surviving adults, husband and wife, are ambushed and killed by Tine fanatics known as Flenserists, in whose realm they have landed. The Flenserists capture a young boy named Jefri Olsndot and his wounded sister, Johanna. Johanna is rescued by a Tine named Peregrine who witnessed the ambush and taken to a neighboring kingdom ruled by a brilliant Tine named Woodcarver. Steel, the Flenserists\' leader, tells Jefri that Johanna and their parents were killed by Woodcarver and exploits him in order to develop advanced technology (such as cannon and radio communication), while Johanna and the knowledge stored in her \"dataset\" device help Woodcarver rapidly develop as well. A highly placed Flenserist spy keeps Steel informed of Woodcarver\'s progress.
A distress signal from the sleeper ship eventually reaches \"Relay\", a major information/service provider for the galactic communications network. A benign transcendent being named \"Old One\" contacts Relay, seeking information about the Blight and the humans who released it, and reconstitutes a human man named Pham Nuwen from the wreckage of a spaceship to act as its agent, using his doubt of his own memory\'s veracity to keep him under its control. Ravna Bergsndot, the only human Relay employee, traces the sleeper ship\'s signal to the Tines\' world and persuades her employer to investigate what it took from High Lab, contracting the merchant vessel *Out of Band II*, owned by two sentient plant \"Skroderiders\", Blueshell and Greenstalk, to transport her and Pham there.
Before the mission is launched, the Blight launches a surprise attack on Relay and kills Old One. As Old One dies, it downloads what anti-Blight information it can into Pham. Pham, Ravna and the Skroderiders barely escape Relay\'s destruction in the *Out of Band II*.
The Blight expands, taking over races and \"rewriting\" their people to become its agents, murdering several other Powers, and seizing other archives in the Beyond, searching for what was taken from High Lab, but looks only in the Beyond. It finally realizes where the danger truly lies and sends a hastily assembled fleet in pursuit.
The humans arrive at the Tines\' world first and ally with Woodcarver to defeat the Flenserists and rescue Jefri. Pham then initiates Countermeasure, which was aboard the humans\' ship. Countermeasure extends the Slow Zone outward thousands of light years, enveloping and killing the Blight at the cost of wrecking thousands of civilizations and causing trillions of deaths. The humans are stranded on the Tines\' world, now in the depths of the Slow Zone. Activating Countermeasure is fatal to Pham, but before he dies, the remnant of Old One within his mind reveals to him that, although his body is a reconstruction, his memories are real. (Vinge expands on Pham\'s backstory in *A Deepness in the Sky*.)
## Intelligent species {#intelligent_species}
### Aprahanti
A race of humanoids with colorful butterfly-like wings who attempt to use the chaos wrought by the Blight to reestablish their waning hegemony. Despite their attractive, delicate appearance, the Aprahanti are an extremely fearsome and vicious species.
### Blight
An ancient, malevolent super-intelligent entity which strives to constantly expand and can manipulate electronics and sentient beings.
### Dirokimes
An older race which originally inhabited Sjandra Kei before the arrival of humanity. They work with the humans.
### Humans
All humans in the novel (except Pham) are descended from Nyjoran stock. Their ancestors were \"Tuvo-Norsk\" asteroid miners from Old Earth\'s solar system, which is noted as being on the other side of the galaxy in the Slow Zone. (*Nyjora* sounds similar to New Norwegian \"New Earth\".) One of the major human habitations is Sjandra Kei, three systems comprising roughly 28 billion individuals. Their main language is Samnorsk, the Norwegian term for a hypothetical unification of the Bokmål and Nynorsk forms of the language. (Vinge indicates in the book\'s dedication that several key ideas in it came to him while at a conference in Tromsø, Norway.)
### Skroders/Riders/Skroderiders
A race of plant beings with fronds that serve as arms, the Riders have little native capacity for short-term memory. They are one of the longest-existing species; five billion years ago, someone gave them six-wheeled mechanical constructs (\"skrodes\") to move around and to provide short-term memory that made it easier for them to retain information well enough to become long-term memory in the \"rider\". It is later revealed that their \"benefactor\" is the Blight, which is able to easily corrupt and remotely operate the Riders via their skrodes.
### Tines
A race of group minds, each Tine is a \"pack\" of doglike members, which communicate within the pack using very short-range ultrasonic waves from drumlike organs called \"tympana\". A pack of four to eight members possesses roughly human-level intelligence; a pack with fewer or more is less smart. Each \"soul\" can survive and evolve by adding members to replace those who die, potentially for hundreds of years, as Woodcarver does.
## Related works {#related_works}
Vinge first used the concepts of \"Zones of Thought\" in a 1988 novella *The Blabber*, which occurs after *Fire*. Vinge\'s novel *A Deepness in the Sky* (1999) is a prequel to *A Fire Upon the Deep* set 20,000 years earlier and featuring Pham Nuwen. Vinge\'s *The Children of the Sky*, \"a near-term sequel to *A Fire Upon the Deep*{{-\"}}, set ten years later, was released in October 2011.
Vinge\'s former wife, Joan D. Vinge, has also written stories in the Zones of Thought universe, based on his notes. These include \"The Outcasts of Heaven Belt\", \"Legacy\", and (as of 2008) a planned novel featuring Pham Nuwen.
## Title
Vinge\'s original title for the novel was \"Among the Tines\"; its final title was suggested by his editors.
## Awards and nominations {#awards_and_nominations}
*A Fire Upon the Deep* shared the 1993 Hugo Award for Best Novel with *Doomsday Book*. The book was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel of 1992, the 1993 John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, and the 1993 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.
## Critical reactions {#critical_reactions}
Jo Walton wrote: \"Any one of the ideas in *A Fire Upon the Deep* would have kept an ordinary writer going for years. For me it\'s the book that does everything right, the example of what science fiction does when it works. \... *A Fire Upon the Deep* remains a favourite and a delight to re-read, absorbing even when I know exactly what\'s coming.\"
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Abimelech
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**Abimelech** (also spelled **Abimelek** or **Avimelech**; `{{Hebrew Name 2|אֲבִימֶלֶךְ|אֲבִימָלֶךְ|ʼAvīméleḵ|ʼAvīmáleḵ|ʼAḇīmeleḵ|ʼAḇīmāleḵ|"my father is a king"/"my father reigns"}}`{=mediawiki}) was the generic name given to all Philistine kings in the Hebrew Bible from the time of Abraham through King David. In the Book of Judges, Abimelech, son of Gideon, of the Tribe of Manasseh, is proclaimed king of Shechem after the death of his father.
## Etymology
The name or title *Abimelech* is formed from Canaanite words for \"father\" and \"king,\" and may be interpreted in a variety of ways, including \"Father-King\", \"My father is king,\" or \"Father of a king.\" In the Pentateuch, it is used as a title for kings in the land of Canaan.
Abimelech can be translated in Arabic as well into \"My father is king\", \"My father is owner\" or \"Father of a king,\" where *italic=no* (*أبي*) means father or my father while *italic=no* (*ملك*) means king or *italic=no* (*مالك*) for owner.
At the time of the Amarna tablets (mid-14th century BC), there was an Egyptian governor of Tyre similarly named Abimilki, `{{citation needed span|who is sometimes speculated to be connected with one or more of the biblical Abimelechs.|date=December 2021}}`{=mediawiki}
## `{{anchor|Abimelech of Gerar}}`{=mediawiki} Abimelech of Gerar {#abimelech_of_gerar}
Abimelech was most prominently the name of a polytheistic king of Gerar who is mentioned in two of the three wife--sister narratives in the Book of Genesis, in connection with both Abraham and Isaac.
King Abimelech of Gerar also appears in an extra-biblical tradition recounted in texts such as the *Arabic Apocalypse of Peter*, the *Cave of Treasures* and the *Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan*, as one of twelve regional kings in Abraham\'s time said to have built the city of Jerusalem for Melchizedek.
## Abimelech son of Jerubbaal/Gideon {#abimelech_son_of_jerubbaalgideon}
The Book of Judges mentions Abimelech, son of judge Gideon (also known as Jerubbaal). According to the biblical narrative, Abimelech was an extremely conniving and evil person. He persuaded his mother\'s brothers to encourage the people of Shechem to back him in a plot to overthrow his family rule and make him sole ruler.
After slaying all but one of his seventy brothers, Abimelech was crowned king. The brother who escaped, Jotham youngest son of Jerrubaal, made a pronouncement against Abimelech and those who had crowned him. The curse was that if they had not dealt righteously with the family of Jerrubaal, then fire would come against Abimelech from the people of Shechem and fire would come out of Abimelech against the people who had backed him in this bloody coup.
After Abimelech ruled for three years, the pronouncement came through. The people of Shechem set robbers to lie in wait of any goods or money headed to Abimelech and steal everything. Then Gaal Son of Ebed went to Shechem and drunkenly bragged that he would remove Abimelech from the throne. Zebul, ruler of Shechem, sent word to Abimelech along with a battle strategy. Once Zebul taunted Gaal into fighting Abimelech, he shut Gaal and his brethren out of the city.
Abimelech then slew the field workers that came out of the city of Shechem the next day. When he heard that the people of Shechem had locked themselves in a strong tower, he and his men set fire to it, killing about a thousand men and women.
After this, Abimelech went to Thebez and camped against it. When he went close to the tower in Thebez to set it on fire, a woman dropped an upper millstone on Abimelech\'s head. He did not want to be known as having been killed by a woman, so he asked his armour bearer to run him through with a sword. His place of death is cited as being Thebez.
## Russian use {#russian_use}
**Avimelekh** (*Авимеле́х*) is a Russian male first name derived from Abimelech. It was included into various, often handwritten, church calendars throughout the 17th--19th centuries, but was omitted from the official Synodal Menologium at the end of the 19th century.
## Other people with this name {#other_people_with_this_name}
Apart from the king (or kings) of Gerar, the Bible also records this name for:
- The father of Abiathar, and high priest in the time of David. In the parallel passage, the name is given as Ahimelech; most authorities consider this the more correct reading.
- The king of Gath better known as Achish, referred to as Abimelech or Achimelech in the title of Psalm 34.
- The husband of Naomi, and father of Mahlon and Chilion who leaves Bethlehem and dies in the land of Moab, in the Hebrew, his name is given as Elimelek, which is likely the correct reading.
Other literary references include:
- Abimélech, Satrap of Gaza is a character baritone in Camille Saint-Saëns\' *Samson and Delilah*.
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2,100 |
Applesoft BASIC
|
**Applesoft BASIC** is a dialect of Microsoft BASIC, developed by Marc McDonald and Ric Weiland, supplied with Apple II computers. It supersedes Integer BASIC and is the BASIC in ROM in all Apple II series computers after the original Apple II model. It is also referred to as **FP BASIC** (from floating point) because of the Apple DOS command `FP` used to invoke it, instead of `INT` for Integer BASIC.
Applesoft BASIC was supplied by Microsoft and its name is derived from the names of both Apple Computer and Microsoft. Apple employees, including Randy Wigginton, adapted Microsoft\'s interpreter for the Apple II and added several features. The first version of Applesoft was released in 1977 on cassette tape and lacked proper support for high-resolution graphics. **Applesoft II**, which was made available on cassette and disk and in the ROM of the Apple II Plus and subsequent models, was released in 1978. It is this latter version, which has some syntax differences and support for the Apple II high-resolution graphics modes, that is usually synonymous with the term \"Applesoft.\"
## History
When Steve Wozniak wrote Integer BASIC for the Apple II, he did not implement support for floating-point arithmetic because he was primarily interested in writing games, a task for which integers alone were sufficient. In 1976, Microsoft had developed Microsoft BASIC for the MOS Technology 6502, but at the time there was no production computer that used it. Upon learning that Apple had a 6502 machine, Microsoft asked if the company were interested in licensing BASIC, but Steve Jobs replied that Apple already had one.
The Apple II was unveiled to the public at the West Coast Computer Faire in April 1977 and became available for sale in June. One of the most common customer complaints about the computer was BASIC\'s lack of floating-point math. Making things more problematic was that the rival Commodore PET personal computer had a floating point-capable BASIC interpreter from the beginning. As Wozniak---the only person who understood Integer BASIC well enough to add floating point features---was busy with the Disk II drive and controller and with Apple DOS, Apple turned to Microsoft.
Apple reportedly obtained an eight-year license for Applesoft BASIC from Microsoft for a flat fee of \$31,000, renewing it in 1985 through an arrangement that gave Microsoft the rights and source code for Apple\'s Macintosh version of BASIC. Applesoft was designed to be backwards-compatible with Integer BASIC and uses the core of Microsoft\'s 6502 BASIC implementation, which includes using the GET command for detecting key presses and not requiring any spaces on program lines. While Applesoft BASIC is slower than Integer BASIC, it has many features that the older BASIC lacks:
- Atomic strings: A string is no longer an array of characters (as in Integer BASIC and C); it is instead a garbage-collected object (as in Scheme and Java). This allows for string arrays; `{{code|DIM A$(10)|basic}}`{=mediawiki} creates an array of *eleven* string variables numbered 0--10.
- Multidimensional arrays (numbers or strings)
- Single-precision floating-point variables with an 8-bit exponent and a 31-bit significand and improved math capabilities, including trigonometry and logarithmic functions
- Commands for high-resolution graphics
- `DATA` statements, with `READ` and `RESTORE` commands, for representing numerical and string values in quantity
- `CHR$`, `STR$`, and `VAL` functions for converting between string and numeric types (both languages did have the `ASC` function)
- User-defined functions: simple one-line functions written in BASIC, with a single parameter
- Error-trapping: allowing BASIC programs to handle unexpected errors via subroutine written in BASIC
Conversely, Applesoft lacks the `MOD` (remainder) operator from Integer BASIC.
Adapting BASIC for the Apple II was a tedious job as Apple received a source listing for Microsoft 6502 BASIC which proved to be buggy and also required the addition of Integer BASIC commands. Since Apple had no 6502 assembler on hand, the development team was forced to send the source code over the phone lines to Call Computer, an outfit that offered compiler services. This was an extremely tedious, slow process and after Call Computer lost the source code due to an equipment malfunction, one of the programmers, Cliff Huston, used his own IMSAI 8080 computer to cross assemble the BASIC source.
## Features
Applesoft is similar to Commodore\'s BASIC 2.0 aside from features inherited from Integer BASIC. There are a few minor differences such as Applesoft\'s lack of bitwise operators; otherwise most BASIC programs that do not use hardware-dependent features will run on both BASICs.
The `{{mono|PR#}}`{=mediawiki} statement redirects output to an expansion card, and `{{mono|IN#}}`{=mediawiki} redirects input from an expansion card. The slot number of the card is specified after the `{{mono|PR#}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{mono|IN#}}`{=mediawiki} within the statement. The computer locks-up if there is no card present in the slot. `{{mono|PR#0}}`{=mediawiki} restores output to the 40 column screen and `{{mono|IN#0}}`{=mediawiki} to the keyboard.
The `{{mono|PR#}}`{=mediawiki} statement can be used to redirect output to the printer (e.g. `{{code|2=basic|10 PR#x:PRINT"Hello!"}}`{=mediawiki}) where x is the slot number containing the printer port card. To send a BASIC program listing to the printer, the user types `{{code|PR#x:LIST}}`{=mediawiki}.
Using `{{mono|PR#}}`{=mediawiki} on a slot with a disk drive (usually in slot 6) causes Applesoft to boot the disk drive. Using `{{mono|PR#}}`{=mediawiki} on a slot with an 80 column card (usually in slot 3) switches to 80 column text mode.
As with Commodore BASIC, numeric variables are stored as 40-bit floating point; each variable requires five bytes of memory. The programmer may designate variables as integer by following them with a percent sign, in which case they use two bytes and are limited to a range of -32768 to 32767; however BASIC internally converts them back to floating point when performing calculations, while each percent sign also takes an additional byte of program code, so in practice this feature is only useful for reducing the memory usage of large array variables, as it offers no performance benefit.
The RND function generates a pseudorandom fractional number between 0 and 1. `{{code|RND(0)}}`{=mediawiki} returns the most recently generated random number. `{{mono|RND}}`{=mediawiki} with a negative number will jump to a point in the sequence determined by the particular negative number used. RND with any positive value generates the next number in the sequence, not dependent on the actual value given.
Like other implementations of Microsoft BASIC, Applesoft discards spaces (outside of strings and comments) on program lines. `LIST` adds spaces when displaying code for the sake of readability. Since `{{mono|LIST}}`{=mediawiki} adds a space before and after every tokenized keyword, it often produces two spaces in a row where one would suffice for readability.
The default prompt for `INPUT` is a question mark. `PRINT` does not add a leading space in front of numbers.
### Limitations
Through several early models of the Apple II, Applesoft BASIC did not support the use of lowercase letters in programs, except in strings. `PRINT` is a valid command but `print` and `Print` result in a syntax error.
Applesoft lacks several commands and functions common to most of the non-6502 Microsoft BASIC interpreters, such as:
- `INSTR` (search for a substring in a string)
- `PRINT USING` (format numbers in printed output)
- `INKEY$` (check for a keypress without stopping the program; although a PEEK to location \$C000 achieves this action)
- `LPRINT` (output to a printer instead of the screen)
Applesoft does not have commands for file or disk handling, other than to save and load programs via cassette tape. The Apple II disk operating system, known simply as DOS, augments the language to provide such abilities.
Only the first two letters of variables names are significant. For example, \"LOW\" and \"LOSS\" are treated as the same variable, and attempting to assign a value to \"LOSS\" overwrites any value assigned to \"LOW\". A programmer also has to avoid consecutive letters that are Applesoft commands or operations. The name \"SCORE\" for a variable is interpreted as containing the `OR` Boolean operator, rendered as `SC OR E`. \"BACKGROUND\" contains `GR`, the command to invoke the low-resolution graphics mode, and results in a syntax error.
### Sound and graphics {#sound_and_graphics}
The only sound support is the option to `PRINT` an ASCII bell character to sound the system alert beep, and a `PEEK` command to click the speaker. The language is not fast enough to produce more than a baritone buzz from repeated clicks. Programs can, however, store a machine-language routine to be called to generate electronic musical tones spanning several octaves.
Applesoft supports drawing in the Apple II\'s low resolution and high resolution modes. There are commands to plot pixels and draw horizontal and vertical lines in low resolution. High resolution allows arbitrary lines and vector-based shape tables for drawing scaled and rotated objects. The only provision for mixing text and graphics is the four lines of text at the bottom of a graphic display.
Beginning with the Apple IIe, a \"double-high resolution\" mode became available on machines with 128k of memory. This mode essentially duplicates the resolution of the original high resolution mode, but including all 16 colors of the low resolution palette. Applesoft does not provide direct support for this mode. Apple IIGS-specific modes are likewise not supported.
### Extensions
Applesoft BASIC can be extended by two means: the ampersand (`{{mono|&}}`{=mediawiki}) command and the `{{mono|USR()}}`{=mediawiki} function. These are two features that call low-level machine-language routines stored in memory, which is useful for routines that need to be fast or require direct access to arbitrary functions or data in memory. The `{{mono|USR()}}`{=mediawiki} function takes one argument, and can be programmed to derive and return a calculated function value to be used in a numerical expression. `{{code|&}}`{=mediawiki} is effectively a shorthand for `{{mono|CALL}}`{=mediawiki}, with an address that is predefined. By calling routines in the Applesoft ROM, it is possible for ampersand routines to parse values that follow the ampersand. Numerous third-party commercial packages were available to extend Applesoft using ampersand routines.
### Bugs
A deficiency with error-trapping via `ONERR` means that the system stack is not reset if an error-handling routine does not invoke `RESUME`, potentially leading to a crash. The built-in pseudorandom number generator function `RND` is capable of producing a predictable series of outputs due to the manner in which the generator is seeded when first powering on. This behavior is contrary to how Apple\'s documentation describes the function.
### Performance
Wozniak originally referred to his Integer BASIC as \"Game BASIC\" (having written it so he could implement a *Breakout* clone for his new computer). Few action games were written in Applesoft BASIC, in large part because the use of floating-point numbers for all math operations degrades performance.
Applesoft BASIC programs are stored as a linked list of lines; a `GOTO` or `GOSUB` takes linear time. Some programs have the subroutines at the top to reduce the time for calling them.
Unlike Integer BASIC, Applesoft does not convert literal numbers (like 100) in the source code to binary when a line is entered. Rather, the ASCII string is converted whenever the line is executed. Since variable lookup is often faster than this conversion, it can be faster to store numeric constants used inside loops in variables before the loop is entered.
## Sample code {#sample_code}
Hello, World! in Applesoft BASIC can be entered as the following:
``` cbmbas
10TEXT:HOME
20?"HELLO WORLD"
```
Multiple commands can be included on the same line of code if separated by a colon (`:`). The `?` can be used in Applesoft BASIC (and almost all versions of Microsoft BASIC) as a shortcut for \"PRINT\", though spelling out the word is not only acceptable but canonical---Applesoft converted \"?\" in entered programs to the same token as \"PRINT\" (thus no memory is actually saved by using \"?\"), thus either appears as \"PRINT\" when a program is listed. The program above appears in a `LIST` command as:
``` cbmbas
10 TEXT : HOME
20 PRINT "HELLO WORLD"
```
When Applesoft II BASIC was initially released in mid-1978, it came on cassette tape and could be loaded into memory via the Apple II\'s machine language monitor. When the enhanced Apple II+ replaced the original II in 1979, Applesoft was now included in ROM and automatically started on power-up if no bootable floppy disk was present. Conversely, Integer BASIC was now removed from ROM and turned into an executable file on the DOS 3.3 disk.
## Early evolution {#early_evolution}
The original Applesoft, stored in RAM as documented in its Reference Manual of November 1977, has smaller interpreter code than the later Applesoft II, occupying 8½ KB of memory, instead of the 10 KB used by the later Applesoft II. Consequently, it lacks a number of command features developed for the later, mainstream version:
- All commands supporting Apple\'s \"high resolution\" graphics (9 total)
- Error-trapping with ONERR\...GOTO and RESUME
- Machine-routine shorthand call \"&\"
- Screen-clearing HOME (a call to a system ROM routine)
- Text-output control NORMAL, INVERSE, FLASH and SPEED=
- The print-space function SPC() is listed among reserved words in the manual, but is not otherwise documented (the TAB() print-function *is* documented)
- Cassette tape storage of numerical arrays: STORE and RECALL
- Device response: WAIT
as well as several the later version would have, that had already been present in Apple\'s Integer BASIC:
- Program-line deletion: DEL
- Machine-routine access: CALL
- Peripheral device access: IN# and PR# (although IN without \"#\" is listed among reserved words)
- Memory range control: HIMEM: and LOMEM:
- Execution tracking for debugging: TRACE and NOTRACE
- Screen-positioning: HTAB and VTAB
- Subroutine aborting POP
- Functions PDL() to read the analog controllers, and SCRN() to read the low-resolution graphics screen (both accessing system ROM routines)
In addition, its low-resolution graphics commands have different names from their Integer BASIC/Applesoft II counterparts. All command names are of the form PLTx such that GR, COLOR=, PLOT, HLIN and VLIN are called PLTG, PLTC, PLTP, PLTH, and PLTV, respectively. The command for returning to text mode, known as TEXT in other versions, is simply TEX, and carries the proviso that it has to be the last statement in a program line.
Applesoft BASIC 1.x was closer to Microsoft\'s original 6502 BASIC code than the later Applesoft II; it retained the Memory Size? prompt and displayed a Microsoft copyright notice. To maintain consistency with Integer BASIC, the \"Ok\" prompt from Microsoft\'s code was replaced by a \] character. Applesoft 1.x also prompted the user upon loading if they wished to disable the REM statement and the LET keyword in assignment statements in exchange for lores graphics commands.
The USR() function is also defined differently, serving as a stand-in for the absent CALL command. Its argument is not for passing a numerical value to the machine-language routine, but is instead the call-address of the routine itself; there is no \"hook\" to pre-define the address. All of several examples in the manual use the function only to access \"system monitor ROM\" routines, or short user-routines to manipulate the ROM routines. No mention is made of any code to calculate the value returned by the function itself; the function is always shown being assigned to \"dummy\" variables, which, without action to set a value by user-code, just receive a meaningless value handed back to them. Even accessed ROM routines that return values (in examples, those that provide the service of PDL() and SCRN() functions) merely have their values stored, by user-routines, in locations that are separately PEEKed in a subsequent statement.
Unlike in Integer BASIC and Applesoft II, the Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT perform bitwise operations on 16-bit integer values. If they are given values outside that range, an error results.
The terms OUT and PLT (and the aforementioned IN) appear in the list of reserved words, but are not explained anywhere in the manual.
## Related BASICs {#related_basics}
Several compilers for Applesoft BASIC exist, including TASC (The Applesoft Compiler) from Microsoft in 1981.
Coleco claimed that its Adam home computer\'s SmartBASIC was source-code compatible with Applesoft.
Microsoft licensed a BASIC compatible with Applesoft to VTech for its Laser 128 clone.
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2,108 |
Adalbert of Prague
|
**Adalbert of Prague** (*Sanctus Adalbertus*, *svatý Vojtěch*, *svätý Vojtech*, *święty Wojciech*, *Szent Adalbert (Béla)*; c. 956`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}23 April 997), known in the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia by his birth name **Vojtěch** (*Voitecus*), was a Czech missionary and Christian saint. He was the Bishop of Prague and a missionary to the Hungarians, Poles, and Prussians, who was martyred in his efforts to convert the Baltic Prussians to Christianity. He is said to be the composer of the oldest Czech hymn *Hospodine, pomiluj ny* and *Bogurodzica*, the oldest known Polish anthem but his authorship of them has not been confirmed.
Adalbert was later declared the patron saint of the Czech Republic, Poland, and the Duchy of Prussia. He is also the patron saint of the Archdiocese of Esztergom in Hungary.
## Life
### Early years {#early_years}
Born as *Vojtěch* in 952 or c. 956 in gord Libice, he belonged to the Slavnik clan, one of the two most powerful families in Bohemia. Events from his life were later recorded by a Bohemian priest Cosmas of Prague (1045--1125). Vojtěch\'s father was Slavník (d. 978--981), a duke ruling a province centred at Libice. His mother was Střezislava (d. 985--987), and according to David Kalhous belonged to the Přemyslid dynasty. He had five brothers: Soběslav, Spytimír, Dobroslav, Pořej, and Čáslav. Cosmas also refers to Radim (later Gaudentius) as a brother; who is believed to have been a half-brother by his father\'s liaison with another woman. After he survived a grave illness in childhood, his parents decided to dedicate him to the service of God. Adalbert was well educated, having studied for approximately ten years (970--80) in Magdeburg under Adalbert of Magdeburg. The young Vojtěch took his tutor\'s name \"Adalbert\" at his Confirmation.
### Episcopacy
In 981 Adalbert of Magdeburg died, and his young protege Adalbert returned to Bohemia. Later Bishop Dietmar of Prague ordained him a Catholic priest. In 982, Bishop Dietmar died, and Adalbert, despite being under canonical age, was chosen to succeed him as Bishop of Prague. Amiable and somewhat worldly, he was not expected to trouble the secular powers by making excessive claims for the Church. Although Adalbert was from a wealthy family, he avoided comfort and luxury, and was noted for his charity and austerity. After six years of preaching and prayer, he had made little headway in evangelising the Bohemians, who maintained deeply embedded pagan beliefs.
Adalbert opposed the participation of Christians in the slave trade and complained of polygamy and idolatry, which were common among the people. Once he started to propose reforms he was met with opposition from both the secular powers and the clergy. His family refused to support Duke Boleslaus in an unsuccessful war against Poland. Adalbert was no longer welcome and eventually forced into exile. In 988 he went to Rome. He lived as a hermit at the Benedictine monastery of Saint Alexis. Five years later, Boleslaus requested that the Pope send Adalbert back to Prague, in hopes of securing his family\'s support. Pope John XV agreed, with the understanding that Adalbert was free to leave Prague if he continued to encounter entrenched resistance. Adalbert returned as bishop of Prague, where he was initially received with demonstrations of apparent joy. Together with a group of Italian Benedictine monks which brought with him, he founded in 14 January 993 a monastery in Břevnov (then situated westward from Prague, now part of the city), the second oldest monastery on Czech territory.
In 995, the Slavniks\' former rivalry with the Přemyslids, who were allied with the powerful Bohemian clan of the Vršovids, resulted in the storming of the Slavnik town of Libice nad Cidlinou, which was led by the Přemyslid Boleslaus II the Pious. During the struggle four or five of Adalbert\'s brothers were killed. The Zlič Principality became part of the Přemyslids\' estate. Adalbert unsuccessfully attempted to protect a noblewoman caught in adultery. She had fled to a convent, where she was killed. In upholding the right of sanctuary, Bishop Adalbert responded by excommunicating the murderers. Butler suggests that the incident was orchestrated by enemies of his family.
After this, Adalbert could not safely stay in Bohemia and escaped from Prague. Strachkvas was eventually appointed to be his successor. However, Strachkvas suddenly died during the liturgy at which he was to accede to his episcopal office in Prague. The cause of his death is still ambiguous. The Pope directed Adalbert to resume his see, but believing that he would not be allowed back, Adalbert requested a brief as an itinerant missionary.
Adalbert then traveled to Hungary and probably baptized Géza of Hungary and his son Stephen in Esztergom. Then he went to Poland where he was cordially welcomed by then-Duke Boleslaus I and installed as Bishop of Gniezno.
### Mission and martyrdom in Prussia {#mission_and_martyrdom_in_prussia}
Adalbert again relinquished his diocese, namely that of Gniezno, and set out as a missionary to preach to the inhabitants near Prussia. Bolesław I, Duke (and, later, King) of Poland, sent soldiers with Adalbert on his mission to the Prussians. The Bishop and his companions, entered Prussian territory and traveled along the coast of the Baltic Sea to Gdańsk. At the borders of the Polish realm, at the mouth of the Vistula River, his half-brother Radim (Gaudentius), Benedict-Bogusza (who was probably a Pole), and at least one interpreter, ventured out into Prussia alone, as Bolesław had only sent his soldiers to escort them to the border.
Adalbert achieved some success upon his arrival, however his arrival mostly caused strain upon the local Prussian populations. Partially this was because of the imperious manner with which he preached, but potentially because he preached utilizing a book. The Prussians had an oral society where communication was face to face. To the locals Adalbert reading from a book may have come off as a manifestation of an evil action. He was forced to leave this first village after being struck in the back of the head by an oar by a local chieftain, causing the pages of his book to scatter upon the ground. He and his companions then fled across a river.
In the next place that Adalbert tried to preach, his message was met with the locals banging their sticks upon the ground, calling for the death of Adalbert and his companions. Retreating once again Adalbert and his companions went to a market place of Truso (near modern-day Elbląg). Here they were met with a similar response as at the previous place. On the 23 April 997, after mass, while Adalbert and his companions lay in the grass while eating a snack, they were set upon by a pagan mob. The mob was led by a man named Sicco, possibly a pagan priest, who delivered the first blow against Adalbert, before the others joined in. They removed Adalbert\'s head from his body after he was dead, and mounted on a pole while they returned home. This encounter may also have taken place in Tenkitten and Fischhausen (now Primorsk, Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia). It is recorded that his body was bought back for its weight in gold by King Boleslaus I of Poland.
## Veneration and relics {#veneration_and_relics}
A few years after his martyrdom, Adalbert was canonized as **Saint Adalbert of Prague.** His life was written in *Vita Sancti Adalberti Pragensis* by various authors, the earliest being traced to imperial Aachen and the Bishop of Liège, Notger von Lüttich, although it was previously assumed that the Roman monk John Canaparius wrote the first *Vita* in 999. Another famous biographer of Adalbert was Bruno of Querfurt who wrote a hagiography of him in 1001--4.
Notably, the Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia initially refused to ransom Adalbert\'s body from the Prussians who murdered him, and therefore it was purchased by Poles. This fact may be explained by Adalbert\'s belonging to the Slavniks family which was rival to the Přemyslids. Thus Adalbert\'s bones were preserved in Gniezno, which assisted Boleslaus I of Poland in increasing Polish political and diplomatic power in Europe.
According to Bohemian accounts, in 1039 the Bohemian Duke Bretislav I looted the bones of Adalbert from Gniezno in a raid and translated them to Prague. According to Polish accounts, however, he stole the wrong relics, namely those of Gaudentius, while the Poles concealed Adalbert\'s relics which remain in Gniezno. In 1127 his severed head, which was not in the original purchase according to *Roczniki Polskie*, was discovered and translated to Gniezno. In 1928, one of the arms of Adalbert, which Bolesław I had given to Holy Roman Emperor Otto III in 1000, was added to the bones preserved in Gniezno. Therefore, today Adalbert has two elaborate shrines in the Prague Cathedral and Royal Cathedral of Gniezno, each of which claims to possess his relics, but which of these bones are his authentic relics is unknown. For example, pursuant to both claims two skulls are attributed to Adalbert. The one in Gniezno was stolen in 1923.
The massive bronze doors of Gniezno Cathedral, dating from around 1175, are decorated with eighteen reliefs of scenes from Adalbert\'s life. They are the only Romanesque ecclesiastical doors in Europe depicting a cycle illustrating the life of a saint, and therefore are a precious relic documenting Adalbert\'s martyrdom. We can read that door literally and theologically.
The one thousandth anniversary of Adalbert\'s martyrdom was on 23 April 1997. It was commemorated in Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, Russia, and other nations. Representatives of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Evangelical churches traveled on a pilgrimage to Adalbert\'s tomb located in Gniezno. Pope John Paul II visited the cathedral and celebrated a liturgy there in which heads of seven European nations and approximately one million faithful participated.
A ten-meter cross was erected near the village of Beregovoe (formerly Tenkitten), Kaliningrad Oblast, where Adalbert is thought to have been martyred by the Prussians.
## Feast day {#feast_day}
- 25 January -- commemoration of translation of relics to Church of Saint Roch,
- 22 April -- commemoration in Diocese of Innsbruck,
- 22 April -- commemoration in Catholic Church in England and Wales,
- 23 April -- commemoration of death anniversary,
- 14 May -- commemoration of consecration of church in Aachen
- 25 August -- commemoration of translation of relics from Gniezno to Prague (1039)
- 26 August -- commemoration of translation of relics to Wrocław
- 20 October -- commemoration of translation of relics to Gniezno (1090)
- 22 October -- commemoration of translation of relics to Gniezno
- 6 November -- commemoration of translation of relics to Esztergom,
He is also commemorated on 23 April by Evangelical Church in Germany and Eastern Orthodox Church.
## In popular culture and society {#in_popular_culture_and_society}
The Dagmar and Václav Havel VIZE 97 Foundation Prize, given annually to a distinguished thinker \"whose work exceeds the traditional framework of scientific knowledge, contributes to the understanding of science as an integral part of general culture and is concerned with unconventional ways of asking fundamental questions about cognition, being and human existence\" includes a massive replica of Adalbert\'s crozier by Czech artist Jiří Plieštík.
St. Vojtech Fellowship was established in 1870 by Slovak Catholic priest Andrej Radlinský. It had facilitated Slovak Catholic thinkers and authors, continuing to publish religious original works and translations to this day. It is the official publishing body of Episcopal Conference of Slovakia.
### Churches and parishes named for Adalbert {#churches_and_parishes_named_for_adalbert}
St. Adalbert\'s Church}}
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Ælfheah of Canterbury
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**Ælfheah** (c. 953 -- 19 April 1012), more commonly known today as **Alphege**, was an Anglo-Saxon Bishop of Winchester, later Archbishop of Canterbury. He became an anchorite before being elected abbot of Bath Abbey. His reputation for piety and sanctity led to his promotion to the episcopate and, eventually, to his becoming archbishop. Ælfheah furthered the cult of Dunstan and also encouraged learning. He was captured by Viking raiders in 1011 during the siege of Canterbury and killed by them the following year after refusing to allow himself to be ransomed. Ælfheah was canonised as a saint in 1078. Thomas Becket, a later Archbishop of Canterbury, prayed to Ælfheah just before his murder in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170.
## Life
Ælfheah was born around 953, and became a monk early in life. He first entered the monastery of Deerhurst, but then moved to Bath, where he became an anchorite. He was noted for his piety and austerity and rose to become abbot of Bath Abbey. The 12th-century chronicler, William of Malmesbury recorded that Ælfheah was a monk and prior at Glastonbury Abbey, but this is not accepted by all historians. Indications are that Ælfheah became abbot at Bath by 982, perhaps as early as around 977. He perhaps shared authority with his predecessor Æscwig after 968.
Probably due to the influence of Dunstan, the Archbishop of Canterbury (959--988), Ælfheah was elected Bishop of Winchester in 984, and was consecrated on 19 October that year. While bishop, he was largely responsible for the construction of a large organ in the cathedral, audible from over a mile (1600 m) away and said to require more than 24 men to operate. He also built and enlarged the city\'s churches, and promoted the cult of Swithun and his predecessor, Æthelwold of Winchester. One act promoting Æthelwold\'s cult was the translation of Æthelwold\'s body to a new tomb in the cathedral at Winchester, which Ælfheah presided over on 10 September 996.
Following a Viking raid in 994, a peace treaty was agreed with one of the raiders, Olaf Tryggvason. Besides receiving danegeld, Olaf converted to Christianity and undertook never to raid or fight the English again. Ælfheah may have played a part in the treaty negotiations, and it is certain that he confirmed Olaf in his new faith.
In 1006, Ælfheah succeeded Ælfric as Archbishop of Canterbury, taking Swithun\'s head with him as a relic for the new location. He went to Rome in 1007 to receive his pallium---symbol of his status as an archbishop---from Pope John XVIII, but was robbed during his journey. While at Canterbury, he promoted the cult of Dunstan, ordering the writing of the second *Life of Dunstan*, which Adelard of Ghent composed between 1006 and 1011. He also introduced new practices into the liturgy, and was instrumental in the Witenagemot\'s recognition of Wulfsige of Sherborne as a saint in about 1012.
Ælfheah sent Ælfric of Eynsham to Cerne Abbey to take charge of its monastic school. He was present at the council of May 1008 at which Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York, preached his *Sermo Lupi ad Anglos* (*The Sermon of the Wolf to the English*), castigating the English for their moral failings and blaming the latter for the tribulations afflicting the country.
In 1011, the Danes again raided England, and from 8--29 September they laid siege to Canterbury. Aided by the treachery of Ælfmaer, whose life Ælfheah had once saved, the raiders succeeded in sacking the city. Ælfheah was taken prisoner and held captive for seven months. Godwine (Bishop of Rochester), Leofrun (abbess of St Mildrith\'s), and the king\'s reeve, Ælfweard were captured also, but the abbot of St Augustine\'s Abbey, Ælfmær, managed to escape. Canterbury Cathedral was plundered and burned by the Danes following Ælfheah\'s capture.
## Death
Ælfheah refused to allow a ransom to be paid for his freedom, and as a result was killed on 19 April 1012 at Greenwich, reputedly on the site of St Alfege\'s Church. The account of Ælfheah\'s death appears in the E version of the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*:
Ælfheah was the first Archbishop of Canterbury to die a violent death. A contemporary report tells that Thorkell the Tall attempted to save Ælfheah from the mob about to kill him by offering everything he owned except for his ship, in exchange for Ælfheah\'s life; Thorkell\'s presence is not mentioned in the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, however. Some sources record that the final blow, with the back of an axe, was delivered as an act of kindness by a Christian convert known as \"Thrum\". Ælfheah was buried in Old St Paul\'s Cathedral. In 1023, his body was moved by King Cnut to Canterbury, with great ceremony. Thorkell the Tall was appalled at the brutality of his fellow raiders, and switched sides to the English king Æthelred the Unready following Ælfheah\'s death.
## Veneration
thumb\|upright=.8\|An 1868 statue on the West Front of Salisbury Cathedral by James Redfern, showing Ælfheah holding the stones used in his martyrdom. Pope Gregory VII canonised Ælfheah in 1078, with a feast day of 19 April. Lanfranc, the first post-Conquest archbishop, was dubious about some of the saints venerated at Canterbury. He was persuaded of Ælfheah\'s sanctity, but Ælfheah and Augustine of Canterbury were the only pre-conquest Anglo-Saxon archbishops kept on Canterbury\'s calendar of saints. Ælfheah\'s shrine, which had become neglected, was rebuilt and expanded in the early 12th century under Anselm of Canterbury, who was instrumental in retaining Ælfheah\'s name in the church calendar. After the 1174 fire in Canterbury Cathedral, Ælfheah\'s remains, together with those of Dunstan were placed around the high altar, at which Thomas Becket is said to have commended his life into Ælfheah\'s care shortly before his martyrdom during the Becket controversy. The new shrine was sealed in lead, and was north of the high altar, sharing the honour with Dunstan\'s shrine, which was located south of the high altar. A *Life of Saint Ælfheah* in prose and verse was written by a Canterbury monk named Osbern, at Lanfranc\'s request. The prose version has survived, but the *Life* is very much a hagiography; many of the stories it contains have obvious Biblical parallels, making them suspect as a historical record.
In the late medieval period, Ælfheah\'s feast day was celebrated in Scandinavia, perhaps because of the saint\'s connection with Cnut. Few church dedications to him are known, with most of them occurring in Kent and one each in London and Winchester; as well as St Alfege\'s Church in Greenwich, a nearby hospital (1931--1968) was named after him. In the town of Solihull in the West Midlands, St Alphege Church is dedicated to Ælfheah dating back to approximately 1277. In 1929, a new Roman Catholic church in Bath, the Church of Our Lady & St Alphege, was designed by Giles Gilbert Scott in homage to the ancient Roman church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, and dedicated to Ælfheah under the name of Alphege.
Artistic representations of Ælfheah often depict him holding a pile of stones in his chasuble, a reference to his martyrdom.
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Associative algebra
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In mathematics, an **associative algebra** *A* over a commutative ring (often a field) *K* is a ring *A* together with a ring homomorphism from *K* into the center of *A*. This is thus an algebraic structure with an addition, a multiplication, and a scalar multiplication (the multiplication by the image of the ring homomorphism of an element of *K*). The addition and multiplication operations together give *A* the structure of a ring; the addition and scalar multiplication operations together give *A* the structure of a module or vector space over *K*. In this article we will also use the term *K*-algebra to mean an associative algebra over *K*. A standard first example of a *K*-algebra is a ring of square matrices over a commutative ring *K*, with the usual matrix multiplication.
A **commutative algebra** is an associative algebra for which the multiplication is commutative, or, equivalently, an associative algebra that is also a commutative ring.
In this article associative algebras are assumed to have a multiplicative identity, denoted 1; they are sometimes called **unital associative algebras** for clarification. In some areas of mathematics this assumption is not made, and we will call such structures non-unital associative algebras. We will also assume that all rings are unital, and all ring homomorphisms are unital.
Every ring is an associative algebra over its center and over the integers.
## Definition
Let *R* be a commutative ring (so *R* could be a field). An **associative *R*-algebra *A*** (or more simply, an ***R*-algebra *A***) is a ring *A* that is also an *R*-module in such a way that the two additions (the ring addition and the module addition) are the same operation, and scalar multiplication satisfies
: $r\cdot(xy) = (r\cdot x)y = x(r\cdot y)$
for all *r* in *R* and *x*, *y* in the algebra. (This definition implies that the algebra, being a ring, is unital, since rings are supposed to have a multiplicative identity.)
Equivalently, an associative algebra *A* is a ring together with a ring homomorphism from *R* to the center of *A*. If *f* is such a homomorphism, the scalar multiplication is `{{nowrap|(''r'', ''x'') ↦ ''f''(''r'')''x''}}`{=mediawiki} (here the multiplication is the ring multiplication); if the scalar multiplication is given, the ring homomorphism is given by `{{nowrap|''r'' ↦ ''r'' ⋅ 1<sub>''A''</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}. (See also *`{{slink|#From ring homomorphisms}}`{=mediawiki}* below).
Every ring is an associative **Z**-algebra, where **Z** denotes the ring of the integers.
A **`{{vanchor|commutative algebra}}`{=mediawiki}** is an associative algebra that is also a commutative ring.
### As a monoid object in the category of modules {#as_a_monoid_object_in_the_category_of_modules}
The definition is equivalent to saying that a unital associative *R*-algebra is a monoid object in ***R*-Mod** (the monoidal category of *R*-modules). By definition, a ring is a monoid object in the category of abelian groups; thus, the notion of an associative algebra is obtained by replacing the category of abelian groups with the category of modules.
Pushing this idea further, some authors have introduced a \"generalized ring\" as a monoid object in some other category that behaves like the category of modules. Indeed, this reinterpretation allows one to avoid making an explicit reference to elements of an algebra *A*. For example, the associativity can be expressed as follows. By the universal property of a tensor product of modules, the multiplication (the *R*-bilinear map) corresponds to a unique *R*-linear map
: $m : A \otimes_R A \to A$.
The associativity then refers to the identity:
: $m \circ ({\operatorname{id}} \otimes m) = m \circ (m \otimes \operatorname{id}).$
### From ring homomorphisms {#from_ring_homomorphisms}
An associative algebra amounts to a ring homomorphism whose image lies in the center. Indeed, starting with a ring *A* and a ring homomorphism `{{nowrap|''η'' : ''R'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} whose image lies in the center of *A*, we can make *A* an *R*-algebra by defining
: $r\cdot x = \eta(r)x$
for all `{{nowrap|''r'' ∈ ''R''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nowrap|''x'' ∈ ''A''}}`{=mediawiki}. If *A* is an *R*-algebra, taking `{{nowrap|1=''x'' = 1}}`{=mediawiki}, the same formula in turn defines a ring homomorphism `{{nowrap|''η'' : ''R'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} whose image lies in the center.
If a ring is commutative then it equals its center, so that a commutative *R*-algebra can be defined simply as a commutative ring *A* together with a commutative ring homomorphism `{{nowrap|''η'' : ''R'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki}.
The ring homomorphism *η* appearing in the above is often called a structure map. In the commutative case, one can consider the category whose objects are ring homomorphisms `{{nowrap|''R'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} for a fixed *R*, i.e., commutative *R*-algebras, and whose morphisms are ring homomorphisms `{{nowrap|''A'' → ''A''′}}`{=mediawiki} that are under *R*; i.e., `{{nowrap|''R'' → ''A'' → ''A''′}}`{=mediawiki} is `{{nowrap|''R'' → ''A''′}}`{=mediawiki} (i.e., the coslice category of the category of commutative rings under *R*.) The prime spectrum functor Spec then determines an anti-equivalence of this category to the category of affine schemes over Spec *R*.
How to weaken the commutativity assumption is a subject matter of noncommutative algebraic geometry and, more recently, of derived algebraic geometry. See also: *Generic matrix ring*.
## Algebra homomorphisms {#algebra_homomorphisms}
A homomorphism between two *R*-algebras is an *R*-linear ring homomorphism. Explicitly, `{{nowrap|''φ'' : ''A''<sub>1</sub> → ''A''<sub>2</sub>}}`{=mediawiki} is an **associative algebra homomorphism** if
: \\begin{align}
` \varphi(r \cdot x) &= r \cdot \varphi(x) \\`\
` \varphi(x + y) &= \varphi(x) + \varphi(y) \\`\
` \varphi(xy) &= \varphi(x)\varphi(y) \\`\
` \varphi(1) &= 1`
\\end{align}
The class of all *R*-algebras together with algebra homomorphisms between them form a category, sometimes denoted ***R*-Alg**.
The subcategory of commutative *R*-algebras can be characterized as the coslice category *R*/**CRing** where **CRing** is the category of commutative rings.
## Examples
The most basic example is a ring itself; it is an algebra over its center or any subring lying in the center. In particular, any commutative ring is an algebra over any of its subrings. Other examples abound both from algebra and other fields of mathematics.
### Algebra
- Any ring *A* can be considered as a **Z**-algebra. The unique ring homomorphism from **Z** to *A* is determined by the fact that it must send 1 to the identity in *A*. Therefore, rings and **Z**-algebras are equivalent concepts, in the same way that abelian groups and **Z**-modules are equivalent.
- Any ring of characteristic *n* is a (**Z**/*n***Z**)-algebra in the same way.
- Given an *R*-module *M*, the endomorphism ring of *M*, denoted End~*R*~(*M*) is an *R*-algebra by defining `{{nowrap|1=(''r''·''φ'')(''x'') = ''r''·''φ''(''x'')}}`{=mediawiki}.
- Any ring of matrices with coefficients in a commutative ring *R* forms an *R*-algebra under matrix addition and multiplication. This coincides with the previous example when *M* is a finitely-generated, free *R*-module.
- In particular, the square *n*-by-*n* matrices with entries from the field *K* form an associative algebra over *K*.
- The complex numbers form a 2-dimensional commutative algebra over the real numbers.
- The quaternions form a 4-dimensional associative algebra over the reals (but not an algebra over the complex numbers, since the complex numbers are not in the center of the quaternions).
- Every polynomial ring `{{nowrap|''R''[''x''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''x<sub>n</sub>'']}}`{=mediawiki} is a commutative *R*-algebra. In fact, this is the free commutative *R*-algebra on the set `{{nowrap|{{mset|''x''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''x<sub>n</sub>''}}}}`{=mediawiki}.
- The free *R*-algebra on a set *E* is an algebra of \"polynomials\" with coefficients in *R* and noncommuting indeterminates taken from the set *E*.
- The tensor algebra of an *R*-module is naturally an associative *R*-algebra. The same is true for quotients such as the exterior and symmetric algebras. Categorically speaking, the functor that maps an *R*-module to its tensor algebra is left adjoint to the functor that sends an *R*-algebra to its underlying *R*-module (forgetting the multiplicative structure).
- Given a module *M* over a commutative ring *R*, the direct sum of modules `{{nowrap|1=''R'' ⊕ ''M''}}`{=mediawiki} has a structure of an *R*-algebra by thinking *M* consists of infinitesimal elements; i.e., the multiplication is given as `{{nowrap|1=(''a'' + ''x'')(''b'' + ''y'') = ''ab'' + ''ay'' + ''bx''}}`{=mediawiki}. The notion is sometimes called the algebra of dual numbers.
- A quasi-free algebra, introduced by Cuntz and Quillen, is a sort of generalization of a free algebra and a semisimple algebra over an algebraically closed field.
### Representation theory {#representation_theory}
- The universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra is an associative algebra that can be used to study the given Lie algebra.
- If *G* is a group and *R* is a commutative ring, the set of all functions from *G* to *R* with finite support form an *R*-algebra with the convolution as multiplication. It is called the group algebra of *G*. The construction is the starting point for the application to the study of (discrete) groups.
- If *G* is an algebraic group (e.g., semisimple complex Lie group), then the coordinate ring of *G* is the Hopf algebra *A* corresponding to *G*. Many structures of *G* translate to those of *A*.
- A quiver algebra (or a path algebra) of a directed graph is the free associative algebra over a field generated by the paths in the graph.
### Analysis
- Given any Banach space *X*, the continuous linear operators `{{nowrap|''A'' : ''X'' → ''X''}}`{=mediawiki} form an associative algebra (using composition of operators as multiplication); this is a Banach algebra.
- Given any topological space *X*, the continuous real- or complex-valued functions on *X* form a real or complex associative algebra; here the functions are added and multiplied pointwise.
- The set of semimartingales defined on the filtered probability space `{{nowrap|(Ω, ''F'', (''F''<sub>''t''</sub>)<sub>''t''≥0</sub>, P)}}`{=mediawiki} forms a ring under stochastic integration.
- The Weyl algebra
- An Azumaya algebra
### Geometry and combinatorics {#geometry_and_combinatorics}
- The Clifford algebras, which are useful in geometry and physics.
- Incidence algebras of locally finite partially ordered sets are associative algebras considered in combinatorics.
- The partition algebra and its subalgebras, including the Brauer algebra and the Temperley-Lieb algebra.
- A differential graded algebra is an associative algebra together with a grading and a differential. For example, the de Rham algebra $\Omega(M) = \bigoplus_{p=0}^n \Omega^p(M)$, where $\Omega^p(M)$ consists of differential *p*-forms on a manifold *M*, is a differential graded algebra.
### Mathematical physics {#mathematical_physics}
- A Poisson algebra is a commutative associative algebra over a field together with a structure of a Lie algebra so that the Lie bracket `{{mset|,}}`{=mediawiki} satisfies the Leibniz rule; i.e., `{{nowrap|1={{mset|''fg'', ''h''}} = {{itco|''f''}}{{mset|''g'', ''h''}} + ''g''{{mset|''f'', ''h''}}}}`{=mediawiki}.
- Given a Poisson algebra $\mathfrak a$, consider the vector space $\mathfrak{a}[\![u]\!]$ of formal power series over $\mathfrak{a}$. If $\mathfrak{a}[\![u]\!]$ has a structure of an associative algebra with multiplication $*$ such that, for $f, g \in \mathfrak{a}$,
: $f * g = f g - \frac{1}{2} \{ f, g \} u + \cdots,$
: then $\mathfrak{a}[\![u]\!]$ is called a deformation quantization of $\mathfrak a$.
- A quantized enveloping algebra. The dual of such an algebra turns out to be an associative algebra (see `{{slink||Dual of an associative algebra}}`{=mediawiki}) and is, philosophically speaking, the (quantized) coordinate ring of a quantum group.
- Gerstenhaber algebra
## Constructions
Subalgebras : A subalgebra of an *R*-algebra *A* is a subset of *A* which is both a subring and a submodule of *A*. That is, it must be closed under addition, ring multiplication, scalar multiplication, and it must contain the identity element of *A*.\
Quotient algebras : Let *A* be an *R*-algebra. Any ring-theoretic ideal *I* in *A* is automatically an *R*-module since `{{nowrap|1=''r'' · ''x'' = (''r''1<sub>''A''</sub>)''x''}}`{=mediawiki}. This gives the quotient ring `{{nowrap|''A'' / ''I''}}`{=mediawiki} the structure of an *R*-module and, in fact, an *R*-algebra. It follows that any ring homomorphic image of *A* is also an *R*-algebra.\
Direct products : The direct product of a family of *R*-algebras is the ring-theoretic direct product. This becomes an *R*-algebra with the obvious scalar multiplication.\
Free products: One can form a free product of *R*-algebras in a manner similar to the free product of groups. The free product is the coproduct in the category of *R*-algebras.\
Tensor products : The tensor product of two *R*-algebras is also an *R*-algebra in a natural way. See tensor product of algebras for more details. Given a commutative ring *R* and any ring *A* the tensor product *R* ⊗~**Z**~ *A* can be given the structure of an *R*-algebra by defining `{{nowrap|1=''r'' · (''s'' ⊗ ''a'') = (''rs'' ⊗ ''a'')}}`{=mediawiki}. The functor which sends *A* to `{{nowrap|''R'' ⊗<sub>'''Z'''</sub> ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} is left adjoint to the functor which sends an *R*-algebra to its underlying ring (forgetting the module structure). See also: Change of rings.\
Free algebra : A free algebra is an algebra generated by symbols. If one imposes commutativity; i.e., take the quotient by commutators, then one gets a polynomial algebra.
## Dual of an associative algebra {#dual_of_an_associative_algebra}
Let *A* be an associative algebra over a commutative ring *R*. Since *A* is in particular a module, we can take the dual module *A*^\*^ of *A*. A priori, the dual *A*^\*^ need not have a structure of an associative algebra. However, *A* may come with an extra structure (namely, that of a Hopf algebra) so that the dual is also an associative algebra.
For example, take *A* to be the ring of continuous functions on a compact group *G*. Then, not only *A* is an associative algebra, but it also comes with the co-multiplication `{{nowrap|1=Δ({{itco|''f''}})(''g'', ''h'') = {{itco|''f''}}(''gh'')}}`{=mediawiki} and co-unit `{{nowrap|1=''ε''({{itco|''f''}}) = {{itco|''f''}}(1)}}`{=mediawiki}. The \"co-\" refers to the fact that they satisfy the dual of the usual multiplication and unit in the algebra axiom. Hence, the dual *A*^\*^ is an associative algebra. The co-multiplication and co-unit are also important in order to form a tensor product of representations of associative algebras (see *`{{slink|#Representations}}`{=mediawiki}* below).
## Enveloping algebra {#enveloping_algebra}
Given an associative algebra *A* over a commutative ring *R*, the **enveloping algebra** *A*^e^ of *A* is the algebra `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗<sub>''R''</sub> ''A''<sup>op</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{nowrap|''A''<sup>op</sup> ⊗<sub>''R''</sub> ''A''}}`{=mediawiki}, depending on authors.
Note that a bimodule over *A* is exactly a left module over *A*^e^.
## Separable algebra {#separable_algebra}
Let *A* be an algebra over a commutative ring *R*. Then the algebra *A* is a right module over `{{nowrap|1=''A''<sup>e</sup> := ''A''<sup>op</sup> ⊗<sub>''R''</sub> ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} with the action `{{nowrap|1=''x'' ⋅ (''a'' ⊗ ''b'') = ''axb''}}`{=mediawiki}. Then, by definition, *A* is said to separable if the multiplication map `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗<sub>''R''</sub> ''A'' → ''A'' : ''x'' ⊗ ''y'' ↦ ''xy''}}`{=mediawiki} splits as an *A*^e^-linear map, where `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗ ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} is an *A*^e^-module by `{{nowrap|1=(''x'' ⊗ ''y'') ⋅ (''a'' ⊗ ''b'') = ''ax'' ⊗ ''yb''}}`{=mediawiki}. Equivalently, *A* is separable if it is a projective module over `{{nowrap|''A''<sup>e</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}; thus, the `{{nowrap|''A''<sup>e</sup>}}`{=mediawiki}-projective dimension of *A*, sometimes called the **bidimension** of *A*, measures the failure of separability.
## Finite-dimensional algebra {#finite_dimensional_algebra}
Let *A* be a finite-dimensional algebra over a field *k*. Then *A* is an Artinian ring.
### Commutative case {#commutative_case}
As *A* is Artinian, if it is commutative, then it is a finite product of Artinian local rings whose residue fields are algebras over the base field *k*. Now, a reduced Artinian local ring is a field and thus the following are equivalent
1. $A$ is separable.
2. $A \otimes \overline{k}$ is reduced, where $\overline{k}$ is some algebraic closure of *k*.
3. $A \otimes \overline{k} = \overline{k}^n$ for some *n*.
4. $\dim_k A$ is the number of $k$-algebra homomorphisms $A \to \overline{k}$.
Let $\Gamma = \operatorname{Gal}(k_s/k) = \varprojlim \operatorname{Gal}(k'/k)$, the profinite group of finite Galois extensions of *k*. Then $A \mapsto X_A = \{ k\text{-algebra homomorphisms } A \to k_s \}$ is an anti-equivalence of the category of finite-dimensional separable *k*-algebras to the category of finite sets with continuous $\Gamma$-actions.
### Noncommutative case {#noncommutative_case}
Since a simple Artinian ring is a (full) matrix ring over a division ring, if *A* is a simple algebra, then *A* is a (full) matrix algebra over a division algebra *D* over *k*; i.e., `{{nowrap|1=''A'' = M<sub>''n''</sub>(''D'')}}`{=mediawiki}. More generally, if *A* is a semisimple algebra, then it is a finite product of matrix algebras (over various division *k*-algebras), the fact known as the Artin--Wedderburn theorem.
The fact that *A* is Artinian simplifies the notion of a Jacobson radical; for an Artinian ring, the Jacobson radical of *A* is the intersection of all (two-sided) maximal ideals (in contrast, in general, a Jacobson radical is the intersection of all left maximal ideals or the intersection of all right maximal ideals.)
The **Wedderburn principal theorem** states: for a finite-dimensional algebra *A* with a nilpotent ideal *I*, if the projective dimension of `{{nowrap|''A'' / ''I''}}`{=mediawiki} as a module over the enveloping algebra `{{nowrap|(''A'' / ''I'')<sup>e</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} is at most one, then the natural surjection `{{nowrap|''p'' : ''A'' → ''A'' / ''I''}}`{=mediawiki} splits; i.e., *A* contains a subalgebra *B* such that `{{nowrap|''p''{{!}}`{=mediawiki}~*B*~ : *B* `{{overset|lh=0.5|~|→}}`{=mediawiki} *A* / *I*}} is an isomorphism. Taking *I* to be the Jacobson radical, the theorem says in particular that the Jacobson radical is complemented by a semisimple algebra. The theorem is an analog of Levi\'s theorem for Lie algebras.
## Lattices and orders {#lattices_and_orders}
Let *R* be a Noetherian integral domain with field of fractions *K* (for example, they can be **Z**, **Q**). A *lattice* *L* in a finite-dimensional *K*-vector space *V* is a finitely generated *R*-submodule of *V* that spans *V*; in other words, `{{nowrap|1=''L'' ⊗<sub>''R''</sub> ''K'' = ''V''}}`{=mediawiki}.
Let *A*~*K*~ be a finite-dimensional *K*-algebra. An *order* in *A*~*K*~ is an *R*-subalgebra that is a lattice. In general, there are a lot fewer orders than lattices; e.g., `{{sfrac|1|2}}`{=mediawiki}**Z** is a lattice in **Q** but not an order (since it is not an algebra).
A *maximal order* is an order that is maximal among all the orders.
## Related concepts {#related_concepts}
### Coalgebras
An associative algebra over *K* is given by a *K*-vector space *A* endowed with a bilinear map `{{nowrap|''A'' × ''A'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} having two inputs (multiplicator and multiplicand) and one output (product), as well as a morphism `{{nowrap|''K'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} identifying the scalar multiples of the multiplicative identity. If the bilinear map `{{nowrap|''A'' × ''A'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} is reinterpreted as a linear map (i.e., morphism in the category of *K*-vector spaces) `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗ ''A'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} (by the universal property of the tensor product), then we can view an associative algebra over *K* as a *K*-vector space *A* endowed with two morphisms (one of the form `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗ ''A'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki} and one of the form `{{nowrap|''K'' → ''A''}}`{=mediawiki}) satisfying certain conditions that boil down to the algebra axioms. These two morphisms can be dualized using categorial duality by reversing all arrows in the commutative diagrams that describe the algebra axioms; this defines the structure of a coalgebra.
There is also an abstract notion of *F*-coalgebra, where *F* is a functor. This is vaguely related to the notion of coalgebra discussed above.
## Representations
A representation of an algebra *A* is an algebra homomorphism `{{nowrap|''ρ'' : ''A'' → End(''V'')}}`{=mediawiki} from *A* to the endomorphism algebra of some vector space (or module) *V*. The property of *ρ* being an algebra homomorphism means that *ρ* preserves the multiplicative operation (that is, `{{nowrap|1=''ρ''(''xy'') = ''ρ''(''x'')''ρ''(''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} for all *x* and *y* in *A*), and that *ρ* sends the unit of *A* to the unit of End(*V*) (that is, to the identity endomorphism of *V*).
If *A* and *B* are two algebras, and `{{nowrap|''ρ'' : ''A'' → End(''V'')}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nowrap|''τ'' : ''B'' → End(''W'')}}`{=mediawiki} are two representations, then there is a (canonical) representation `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗ ''B'' → End(''V'' ⊗ ''W'')}}`{=mediawiki} of the tensor product algebra `{{nowrap|''A'' ⊗ ''B''}}`{=mediawiki} on the vector space `{{nowrap|''V'' ⊗ ''W''}}`{=mediawiki}. However, there is no natural way of defining a tensor product of two representations of a single associative algebra in such a way that the result is still a representation of that same algebra (not of its tensor product with itself), without somehow imposing additional conditions. Here, by *tensor product of representations*, the usual meaning is intended: the result should be a linear representation of the same algebra on the product vector space. Imposing such additional structure typically leads to the idea of a Hopf algebra or a Lie algebra, as demonstrated below.
### Motivation for a Hopf algebra {#motivation_for_a_hopf_algebra}
Consider, for example, two representations `{{nowrap|''σ'' : ''A'' → End(''V'')}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{nowrap|''τ'' : ''A'' → End(''W'')}}`{=mediawiki}. One might try to form a tensor product representation `{{nowrap|''ρ'' : ''x'' ↦ ''σ''(''x'') ⊗ ''τ''(''x'')}}`{=mediawiki} according to how it acts on the product vector space, so that
: $\rho(x)(v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x)(v)) \otimes (\tau(x)(w)).$
However, such a map would not be linear, since one would have
: $\rho(kx) = \sigma(kx) \otimes \tau(kx) = k\sigma(x) \otimes k\tau(x) = k^2 (\sigma(x) \otimes \tau(x)) = k^2 \rho(x)$
for `{{nowrap|''k'' ∈ ''K''}}`{=mediawiki}. One can rescue this attempt and restore linearity by imposing additional structure, by defining an algebra homomorphism `{{nowrap|Δ : ''A'' → ''A'' ⊗ ''A''}}`{=mediawiki}, and defining the tensor product representation as
: $\rho = (\sigma\otimes \tau) \circ \Delta.$
Such a homomorphism Δ is called a comultiplication if it satisfies certain axioms. The resulting structure is called a bialgebra. To be consistent with the definitions of the associative algebra, the coalgebra must be co-associative, and, if the algebra is unital, then the co-algebra must be co-unital as well. A Hopf algebra is a bialgebra with an additional piece of structure (the so-called antipode), which allows not only to define the tensor product of two representations, but also the Hom module of two representations (again, similarly to how it is done in the representation theory of groups).
### Motivation for a Lie algebra {#motivation_for_a_lie_algebra}
One can try to be more clever in defining a tensor product. Consider, for example,
: $x \mapsto \rho (x) = \sigma(x) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x)$
so that the action on the tensor product space is given by
: $\rho(x) (v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x) v)\otimes w + v \otimes (\tau(x) w)$.
This map is clearly linear in *x*, and so it does not have the problem of the earlier definition. However, it fails to preserve multiplication:
: $\rho(xy) = \sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)$.
But, in general, this does not equal
: $\rho(x)\rho(y) = \sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \sigma(x) \otimes \tau(y) + \sigma(y) \otimes \tau(x) + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)$.
This shows that this definition of a tensor product is too naive; the obvious fix is to define it such that it is antisymmetric, so that the middle two terms cancel. This leads to the concept of a Lie algebra.
## Non-unital algebras {#non_unital_algebras}
Some authors use the term \"associative algebra\" to refer to structures which do not necessarily have a multiplicative identity, and hence consider homomorphisms which are not necessarily unital.
One example of a non-unital associative algebra is given by the set of all functions `{{nowrap|''f'' : '''R''' → '''R'''}}`{=mediawiki} whose limit as *x* nears infinity is zero.
Another example is the vector space of continuous periodic functions, together with the convolution product.
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Axiom of regularity
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In mathematics, the **axiom of regularity** (also known as the **axiom of foundation**) is an axiom of Zermelo--Fraenkel set theory that states that every non-empty set *A* contains an element that is disjoint from *A*. In first-order logic, the axiom reads:
$\forall x\,(x \neq \varnothing \rightarrow (\exists y \in x) (y \cap x = \varnothing)).$
The axiom of regularity together with the axiom of pairing implies that no set is an element of itself, and that there is no infinite sequence $(a_n)$ such that $a_{i+1}$ is an element of $a_i$ for all $i$. With the axiom of dependent choice (which is a weakened form of the axiom of choice), this result can be reversed: if there are no such infinite sequences, then the axiom of regularity is true. Hence, in this context the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the sentence that there are no downward infinite membership chains.
The axiom was originally formulated by von Neumann; it was adopted in a formulation closer to the one found in contemporary textbooks by Zermelo. Virtually all results in the branches of mathematics based on set theory hold even in the absence of regularity. However, regularity makes some properties of ordinals easier to prove; and it not only allows induction to be done on well-ordered sets but also on proper classes that are well-founded relational structures such as the lexicographical ordering on $\{ (n, \alpha) \mid n \in \omega \land \alpha \text{ is an ordinal } \} \,.$
Given the other axioms of Zermelo--Fraenkel set theory, the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the axiom of induction. The axiom of induction tends to be used in place of the axiom of regularity in intuitionistic theories (ones that do not accept the law of the excluded middle), where the two axioms are not equivalent.
In addition to omitting the axiom of regularity, non-standard set theories have indeed postulated the existence of sets that are elements of themselves.
## Elementary implications of regularity {#elementary_implications_of_regularity}
### No set is an element of itself {#no_set_is_an_element_of_itself}
Let $A$ be a set, and apply the axiom of regularity to $\{A\}$, which is a set by the axiom of pairing. By this axiom, there must be an element of $\{A\}$ which is disjoint from $\{A\}$. Since the only element of $\{A\}$ is $A$, it must be that $A$ is disjoint from $\{A\}$. So, since $A \cap \{A\} = \varnothing$, we cannot have $A$ an element of $A$ (by the definition of disjointness).
### No infinite descending sequence of sets exists {#no_infinite_descending_sequence_of_sets_exists}
Suppose, to the contrary, that there is a function, *f*, on the natural numbers with *f*(*n*+1) an element of *f*(*n*) for each *n*. Define *S* = {*f*(*n*): *n* a natural number}, the range of *f*, which can be seen to be a set from the axiom schema of replacement. Applying the axiom of regularity to *S*, let *B* be an element of *S* which is disjoint from *S*. By the definition of *S*, *B* must be *f*(*k*) for some natural number *k*. However, we are given that *f*(*k*) contains *f*(*k*+1) which is also an element of *S*. So *f*(*k*+1) is in the intersection of *f*(*k*) and *S*. This contradicts the fact that they are disjoint sets. Since our supposition led to a contradiction, there must not be any such function, *f*.
The nonexistence of a set containing itself can be seen as a special case where the sequence is infinite and constant.
Notice that this argument only applies to functions *f* that can be represented as sets as opposed to undefinable classes. The hereditarily finite sets, *V*~ω~, satisfy the axiom of regularity (and all other axioms of ZFC except the axiom of infinity). So if one forms a non-trivial ultrapower of V~ω~, then it will also satisfy the axiom of regularity. The resulting model will contain elements, called non-standard natural numbers, that satisfy the definition of natural numbers in that model but are not really natural numbers.`{{dubious|date=February 2023|reason=They satisfy the first-order Peano axioms, so it seems dubious to claim that they are not actually natural numbers. They presumably do not satisfy the second-order Peano axioms with respect to the subset relation of the "ambient" set theory inside of which the model is constructed. But don't they actually satisfy the second-order Peano axioms with respect to the internal subset relation of the model?}}`{=mediawiki} They are \"fake\" natural numbers which are \"larger\" than any actual natural number. This model will contain infinite descending sequences of elements.`{{clarification needed|date=February 2023|reason=Is the set membership relation in this infinite descending chain the "internal" set membership relation of the model? (I.e. the model's interpretation of the set membership relation?) Or is what follows referring to the set membership relation of the "ambient" set theory in which the model is constructed? Presumably it can't be the latter, because the fact that the latter has a von Neumann cumulative hierarchy, e.g. V_omega, seems to presuppose that it satisfies regularity, and thus otherwise this section would be describing a contradiction. If so, then this section ideally would clarify that what follows refers to the model's interpretation of the set membership relation, and that this is necessarily distinct from (in particular not the restriction of) the ambient set theory's set membership relation.}}`{=mediawiki} For example, suppose *n* is a non-standard natural number, then $(n-1) \in n$ and $(n-2) \in (n-1)$, and so on. For any actual natural number *k*, $(n-k-1) \in (n-k)$. This is an unending descending sequence of elements. But this sequence is not definable in the model and thus not a set. So no contradiction to regularity can be proved.
### Simpler set-theoretic definition of the ordered pair {#simpler_set_theoretic_definition_of_the_ordered_pair}
The axiom of regularity enables defining the ordered pair (*a*,*b*) as {*a*,{*a*,*b*}}; see ordered pair for specifics. This definition eliminates one pair of braces from the canonical Kuratowski definition (*a*,*b*) = {{*a*},{*a*,*b*}}.
### Every set has an ordinal rank {#every_set_has_an_ordinal_rank}
This was actually the original form of the axiom in von Neumann\'s axiomatization.
Suppose *x* is any set. Let *t* be the transitive closure of {*x*}. Let *u* be the subset of *t* consisting of unranked sets. If *u* is empty, then *x* is ranked and we are done. Otherwise, apply the axiom of regularity to *u* to get an element *w* of *u* which is disjoint from *u*. Since *w* is in *u*, *w* is unranked. *w* is a subset of *t* by the definition of transitive closure. Since *w* is disjoint from *u*, every element of *w* is ranked. Applying the axioms of replacement and union to combine the ranks of the elements of *w*, we get an ordinal rank for *w*, to wit $\textstyle \operatorname{rank} (w) = \cup \{ \operatorname{rank} (z) + 1 \mid z \in w \}$. This contradicts the conclusion that *w* is unranked. So the assumption that *u* was non-empty must be false and *x* must have rank.
### For every two sets, only one can be an element of the other {#for_every_two_sets_only_one_can_be_an_element_of_the_other}
Let *X* and *Y* be sets. Then apply the axiom of regularity to the set {*X*,*Y*} (which exists by the axiom of pairing). We see there must be an element of {*X*,*Y*} which is also disjoint from it. It must be either *X* or *Y*. By the definition of disjoint then, we must have either *Y* is not an element of *X* or vice versa.
## The axiom of dependent choice and no infinite descending sequence of sets implies regularity {#the_axiom_of_dependent_choice_and_no_infinite_descending_sequence_of_sets_implies_regularity}
Let the non-empty set *S* be a counter-example to the axiom of regularity; that is, every element of *S* has a non-empty intersection with *S*. We define a binary relation *R* on *S* by $aRb :\Leftrightarrow b \in S \cap a$, which is entire by assumption. Thus, by the axiom of dependent choice, there is some sequence (*a~n~*) in *S* satisfying *a~n~Ra~n+1~* for all *n* in **N**. As this is an infinite descending chain, we arrive at a contradiction and so, no such *S* exists.
## Regularity and the rest of ZF(C) axioms {#regularity_and_the_rest_of_zfc_axioms}
Regularity was shown to be relatively consistent with the rest of ZF by Skolem and von Neumann, meaning that if ZF without regularity is consistent, then ZF (with regularity) is also consistent.
The axiom of regularity was also shown to be independent from the other axioms of ZFC, assuming they are consistent. The result was announced by Paul Bernays in 1941, although he did not publish a proof until 1954. The proof involves (and led to the study of) Rieger-Bernays permutation models (or method), which were used for other proofs of independence for non-well-founded systems.
## Regularity in ordinary mathematics {#regularity_in_ordinary_mathematics}
The axiom of regularity is rarely useful outside of set theory; A. A. Fraenkel, Y. Bar-Hillel and A. Levy noted that "its omission will not incapacitate any field of mathematics". Its inclusion, therefore, can be considered as chiefly a clarification of what one means by "set", as elaborated on by the Mostowski collapse lemma (which provides the converse: that not only is membership on every set a well-founded and extensional relation, but that any such relation admits a corresponding set). If one performs mathematics in a more structural setting, for example by using a type theory or structural set theory like ETCS, the axiom is not used at all, since it is not needed to prove that **Set**, the category of sets, forms an elementary topos.
However, it does have practical uses, especially in the absence of the axiom of choice. One application is Scott\'s trick for constructing equivalence classes of a relation defined on proper classes, as an alternative to postulating a Grothendieck universe; it may also be used as an alternative to choice in the proof of Frucht\'s theorem for infinite groups.
## Regularity and Russell\'s paradox {#regularity_and_russells_paradox}
Naive set theory (the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension and the axiom of extensionality) is inconsistent due to Russell\'s paradox. In early formalizations of sets, mathematicians and logicians have avoided that contradiction by replacing the axiom schema of comprehension with the much weaker axiom schema of separation. However, this step alone takes one to theories of sets which are considered too weak.`{{clarification needed|date=January 2023|reason=This seems to have in mind a specific result or interpretation, however what that might be is not stated. Ideally that would be given, along with a citation of at least one reference stating/explaining the corresponding result/interpretation.}}`{=mediawiki} So some of the power of comprehension was added back via the other existence axioms of ZF set theory (pairing, union, powerset, replacement, and infinity) which may be regarded as special cases of comprehension.`{{clarification needed|date=January 2023|reason=Interpreting this literally, if these axioms were all special cases of the particular comprehension axiom, then adding them back would neither strengthen nor weaken the theory. So clearly something slightly different is what the author had in mind, and expressed it this way heuristically. Fine. But a reference to a more precise explanation/result could still be helpful.}}`{=mediawiki} So far, these axioms do not seem to lead to any contradiction. Subsequently, the axiom of choice and the axiom of regularity were added to exclude models with some undesirable properties. These two axioms are known to be relatively consistent.
In the presence of the axiom schema of separation, Russell\'s paradox becomes a proof that there is no set of all sets. The axiom of regularity together with the axiom of pairing also prohibit such a universal set. However, Russell\'s paradox yields a proof that there is no \"set of all sets\" using the axiom schema of separation alone, without any additional axioms. In particular, ZF without the axiom of regularity already prohibits such a universal set.
If a theory is extended by adding an axiom or axioms, then any (possibly undesirable) consequences of the original theory remain consequences of the extended theory. In particular, if ZF without regularity is extended by adding regularity to get ZF, then any contradiction (such as Russell\'s paradox) which followed from the original theory would still follow in the extended theory.
The existence of Quine atoms (sets that satisfy the formula equation *x* = {*x*}, i.e. have themselves as their only elements) is consistent with the theory obtained by removing the axiom of regularity from ZFC. Various non-wellfounded set theories allow \"safe\" circular sets, such as Quine atoms, without becoming inconsistent by means of Russell\'s paradox.
## Regularity, the cumulative hierarchy, and types {#regularity_the_cumulative_hierarchy_and_types}
In ZF it can be proven that the class $\bigcup_{\alpha} V_\alpha$, called the von Neumann universe, is equal to the class of all sets. This statement is even equivalent to the axiom of regularity (if we work in ZF with this axiom omitted). From any model which does not satisfy the axiom of regularity, a model which satisfies it can be constructed by taking only sets in $\bigcup_{\alpha} V_\alpha$.
Herbert Enderton wrote that \"The idea of rank is a descendant of Russell\'s concept of *type*\". Comparing ZF with type theory, Alasdair Urquhart wrote that \"Zermelo\'s system has the notational advantage of not containing any explicitly typed variables, although in fact it can be seen as having an implicit type structure built into it, at least if the axiom of regularity is included.
Dana Scott went further and claimed that:
In the same paper, Scott shows that an axiomatic system based on the inherent properties of the cumulative hierarchy turns out to be equivalent to ZF, including regularity.
## History
The concept of well-foundedness and rank of a set were both introduced by Dmitry Mirimanoff. Mirimanoff called a set *x* \"regular\" (*ordinaire*) if every descending chain *x* ∋ *x*~1~ ∋ *x*~2~ ∋ \... is finite. Mirimanoff however did not consider his notion of regularity (and well-foundedness) as an axiom to be observed by all sets; in later papers Mirimanoff also explored what are now called non-well-founded sets (*extraordinaire* in Mirimanoff\'s terminology).
Skolem and von Neumann pointed out that non-well-founded sets are superfluous and in the same publication von Neumann gives an axiom which excludes some, but not all, non-well-founded sets. In a subsequent publication, von Neumann gave an equivalent but more complex version of the axiom of class foundation:
$A \neq \emptyset \rightarrow \exists x \in A\,(x \cap A = \emptyset).$
The contemporary and final form of the axiom is due to Zermelo.
## Regularity in the presence of urelements {#regularity_in_the_presence_of_urelements}
Urelements are objects that are not sets, but which can be elements of sets. In ZF set theory, there are no urelements, but in some other set theories such as ZFA, there are. In these theories, the axiom of regularity must be modified. The statement \"$x \neq \emptyset$\" needs to be replaced with a statement that $x$ is not empty and is not an urelement. One suitable replacement is $(\exists y)[y \in x]$, which states that *x* is inhabited.
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AppleTalk
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**AppleTalk** is a discontinued proprietary suite of networking protocols developed by Apple Computer for their Macintosh computers. AppleTalk includes a number of features that allow local area networks to be connected with no prior setup or the need for a centralized router or server of any sort. Connected AppleTalk-equipped systems automatically assign addresses, update the distributed namespace, and configure any required inter-networking routing.
AppleTalk was released in 1985 and was the primary protocol used by Apple devices through the 1980s and 1990s. Versions were also released for the IBM PC and compatibles and the Apple IIGS. AppleTalk support was also available in most networked printers (especially laser printers), some file servers, and a number of routers.
The rise of TCP/IP during the 1990s led to a reimplementation of most of these types of support on that protocol, and AppleTalk became unsupported as of the release of Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009. Many of AppleTalk\'s more advanced autoconfiguration features have since been introduced in Bonjour, while Universal Plug and Play serves similar needs.
## History
### AppleNet
After the release of the Apple Lisa computer in January 1983, Apple invested considerable effort in the development of a local area networking (LAN) system for the machines. Known as **AppleNet**, it was based on the seminal Xerox XNS protocol stack but running on a custom 1 Mbit/s coaxial cable system rather than Xerox\'s 2.94 Mbit/s Ethernet. AppleNet was announced early in 1983 with a full introduction at the target price of \$500 for plug-in AppleNet cards for the Lisa and the Apple II.
At that time, early LAN systems were just coming to market, including Ethernet, Token Ring, Econet, and ARCNET. This was a topic of major commercial effort at the time, dominating shows like the National Computer Conference (NCC) in Anaheim in May 1983. All of the systems were jockeying for position in the market, but even at this time, Ethernet\'s widespread acceptance suggested it was to become a *de facto* standard. It was at this show that Steve Jobs asked Gursharan Sidhu a seemingly innocuous question: \"Why has networking not caught on?\"
Four months later, in October, AppleNet was cancelled. At the time, they announced that \"Apple realized that it\'s not in the business to create a networking system. We built and used AppleNet in-house, but we realized that if we had shipped it, we would have seen new standards coming up.\" In January, Jobs announced that they would instead be supporting IBM\'s Token Ring, which he expected to come out in a \"few months\".
### AppleBus
Through this period, Apple was deep in development of the Macintosh computer. During development, engineers had made the decision to use the Zilog 8530 serial controller chip (SCC) instead of the lower-cost and more common UART to provide serial port connections. The SCC cost about \$5 more than a UART, but offered much higher speeds of up to 250 kilobits per second (or higher with additional hardware) and internally supported a number of basic networking-like protocols like IBM\'s Bisync.
The SCC was chosen because it would allow multiple devices to be attached to the port. Peripherals equipped with similar SCCs could communicate using the built-in protocols, interleaving their data with other peripherals on the same bus. This would eliminate the need for more ports on the back of the machine, and allowed for the elimination of expansion slots for supporting more complex devices. The initial concept was known as **AppleBus**, envisioning a system controlled by the host Macintosh polling \"dumb\" devices in a fashion similar to the modern Universal Serial Bus.
### AppleBus networking {#applebus_networking}
The Macintosh team had already begun work on what would become the LaserWriter and had considered a number of other options to answer the question of how to share these expensive machines and other resources. A series of memos from Bob Belleville clarified these concepts, outlining the Mac, LaserWriter, and a file server system which would become the Macintosh Office. By late 1983 it was clear that IBM\'s Token Ring would not be ready in time for the launch of the Mac, and might miss the launch of these other products as well. In the end, Token Ring would not ship until October 1985.
Jobs\' earlier question to Sidhu had already sparked a number of ideas. When AppleNet was cancelled in October, Sidhu led an effort to develop a new networking system based on the AppleBus hardware. This new system would not have to conform to any existing preconceptions, and was designed to be worthy of the Mac -- a system that was user-installable and required no configuration or fixed network addresses -- in short, a true plug-and-play network.`{{third-party inline|date=June 2012}}`{=mediawiki} Considerable effort was needed, but by the time the Mac was released, the basic concepts had been outlined, and some of the low-level protocols were on their way to completion. Sidhu mentioned the work to Belleville only two hours after the Mac was announced.
The \"new\" AppleBus was announced in early 1984, allowing direct connection from the Mac or Lisa through a small box that is plugged into the serial port and connected via cables to the next computer upstream and downstream. Adaptors for Apple II and Apple III were also announced. Apple also announced that an AppleBus network could be attached to, and would appear to be a single node within, a Token Ring system. Details of how this would work were sketchy.
### AppleTalk Personal Network {#appletalk_personal_network}
Just prior to its release in early 1985, AppleBus was renamed **AppleTalk**. Initially marketed as **AppleTalk Personal Network**, it comprised a family of network protocols and a physical layer.
The physical layer had a number of limitations, including a speed of only 230.4 kbit/s, a maximum distance of 1000 ft from end to end, and only 32 nodes per LAN. But as the basic hardware was built into the Mac, adding nodes only cost about \$50 for the adaptor box. In comparison, Ethernet or Token Ring cards cost hundreds or thousands of dollars. Additionally, the entire networking stack required only about 6 kB of RAM, allowing it to run on any Mac.
The relatively slow speed of AppleTalk allowed further reductions in cost. Instead of using RS-422\'s balanced transmit and receive circuits, the AppleTalk cabling used a single common electrical ground, which limited speeds to about 500 kbit/s, but allowed one conductor to be removed. This meant that common three-conductor cables could be used for wiring. Additionally, the adaptors were designed to be \"self-terminating\", meaning that nodes at the end of the network could simply leave their last connector unconnected. There was no need for the wires to be connected back together into a loop, nor the need for hubs or other devices.
The system was designed for future expansion; the addressing system allowed for expansion to 255 nodes in a LAN (although only 32 could be used at that time), and by using \"bridges\" (which came to be known as \"routers\", although technically not the same) one could interconnect LANs into larger collections. \"Zones\" allowed devices to be addressed within a bridge-connected internet. Additionally, AppleTalk was designed from the start to allow use with any potential underlying physical link, and within a few years, the physical layer would be renamed **LocalTalk**, so as to differentiate it from the AppleTalk protocols.
The main advantage of AppleTalk was that it was completely maintenance-free. To join a device to a network, a user simply plugged the adaptor into the machine, then connected a cable from it to any free port on any other adaptor. The AppleTalk network stack negotiated a network address, assigned the computer a human-readable name, and compiled a list of the names and types of other machines on the network so the user could browse the devices through the Chooser. AppleTalk was so easy to use that ad hoc networks tended to appear whenever multiple Macs were in the same room. Apple would later use this in an advertisement showing a network being created between two seats in an airplane.
### PhoneNet and other adaptors {#phonenet_and_other_adaptors}
Slow but inexpensive, AppleTalk became widely popular.`{{r|satchell19870817}}`{=mediawiki} A thriving third-party market for AppleTalk devices developed over the next few years. One particularly notable example was an alternate adaptor designed by BMUG and commercialised by Farallon as PhoneNET in 1987. This was essentially a replacement for Apple\'s connector that had conventional phone jacks instead of Apple\'s round connectors. PhoneNet allowed AppleTalk networks to be connected together using normal telephone wires, and with very little extra work, could run analog phones and AppleTalk on a single four-conductor phone cable.
Other companies took advantage of the SCC\'s ability to read external clocks in order to support higher transmission speeds, up to 1 Mbit/s. In these systems, the external adaptor also included its own clock, and used that to signal the SCC\'s clock input pins. The best-known such system was Centram\'s **FlashTalk**, which ran at 768 kbit/s, and was intended to be used with their TOPS networking system. A similar solution was the 850 kbit/s **DaynaTalk**, which used a separate box that plugged in between the computer and a normal LocalTalk/PhoneNet box. Dayna also offered a PC expansion card that ran up to 1.7 Mbit/s when talking to other Dayna PC cards. Several other systems also existed with even higher performance, but these often required special cabling that was incompatible with LocalTalk/PhoneNet, and also required patches to the networking stack that often caused problems.
### AppleTalk over Ethernet {#appletalk_over_ethernet}
As Apple expanded into more commercial and education markets, they needed to integrate AppleTalk into existing network installations. Many of these organisations had already invested in a very expensive Ethernet infrastructure and there was no direct way to connect a Macintosh to Ethernet. AppleTalk included a protocol structure for interconnecting AppleTalk subnets and so as a solution, EtherTalk was initially created to use the Ethernet as a backbone between LocalTalk subnets. To accomplish this, organizations would need to purchase a LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridge and Apple left it to third parties to produce these products. A number of companies responded, including Hayes and a few newly formed companies like Kinetics.
### LocalTalk, EtherTalk, TokenTalk, and AppleShare {#localtalk_ethertalk_tokentalk_and_appleshare}
By 1987, Ethernet was clearly winning the standards battle over Token Ring, and in the middle of that year, Apple introduced **EtherTalk 1.0**, an implementation of the AppleTalk protocol over the Ethernet physical layer. Introduced for the newly released Macintosh II computer, one of Apple\'s first two Macintoshes with expansion slots (the Macintosh SE had one slot of a different type), the operating system included a new Network control panel that allowed the user to select which physical connection to use for networking (from \"Built-in\" or \"EtherTalk\"). At introduction, Ethernet interface cards were available from 3Com and Kinetics that plugged into a Nubus slot in the machine. The new networking stack also expanded the system to allow a full 255 nodes per LAN. With EtherTalk\'s release, AppleTalk Personal Network was renamed **LocalTalk**, the name it would be known under for the bulk of its life. Token Ring would later be supported with a similar **TokenTalk** product, which used the same Network control panel and underlying software. Over time, many third-party companies would introduce compatible Ethernet and Token Ring cards that used these same drivers.
The appearance of a Macintosh with a direct Ethernet connection also magnified the Ethernet and LocalTalk compatibility problem: Networks with new and old Macs needed some way to communicate with each other. This could be as simple as a network of Ethernet Mac II\'s trying to talk to a LaserWriter that only connected to LocalTalk. Apple initially relied on the aforementioned LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridge products, but contrary to Apple\'s belief that these would be low-volume products, by the end of 1987, 130,000 such networks were in use. AppleTalk was at that time the most used networking system in the world, with over three times the installations of any other vendor.`{{third-party inline|date=June 2012}}`{=mediawiki}
1987 also marked the introduction of the AppleShare product, a dedicated file server that ran on any Mac with 512 kB of RAM or more. A common AppleShare machine was the Mac Plus with an external SCSI hard drive. AppleShare was the #3 network operating system (NOS) in the late 1980s, behind Novell NetWare and Microsoft\'s MS-Net. While NetWare had more than 50% of the NOS market, AppleTalk users were the happiest. AppleShare was effectively the replacement for the failed Macintosh Office efforts, which had been based on a dedicated file server device.
### AppleTalk Phase II and other developments {#appletalk_phase_ii_and_other_developments}
A significant re-design was released in 1989 as **AppleTalk Phase II**. In many ways, Phase II can be considered an effort to make the earlier version (never called Phase I) more generic. LANs could now support more than 255 nodes, and zones were no longer associated with physical networks but were entirely virtual constructs used simply to organize nodes. For instance, one could now make a \"Printers\" zone that would list all the printers in an organization, or one might want to place that same device in the \"2nd Floor\" zone to indicate its physical location. Phase II also included changes to the underlying inter-networking protocols to make them less \"chatty\", which had previously been a serious problem on networks that bridged over wide-area networks.
By this point, Apple had a wide variety of communications products under development, and many of these were announced along with AppleTalk Phase II. These included updates to EtherTalk and TokenTalk, AppleTalk software and LocalTalk hardware for the IBM PC, EtherTalk for Apple\'s A/UX operating system allowing it to use LaserWriters and other network resources, and the Mac X.25 and MacX products.
Ethernet had become almost universal by 1990, and it was time to build Ethernet into Macs direct from the factory. However, the physical wiring used by these networks was not yet completely standardized. Apple solved this problem using a single port on the back of the computer into which the user could plug an adaptor for any given cabling system. This **FriendlyNet** system was based on the industry-standard Attachment Unit Interface or AUI, but deliberately chose a non-standard connector that was smaller and easier to use, which they called \"Apple AUI\", or **AAUI**. FriendlyNet was first introduced on the Quadra 700 and Quadra 900 computers, and used across much of the Mac line for some time. As with LocalTalk, a number of third-party FriendlyNet adaptors quickly appeared.
As 10BASE-T became the de facto cabling system for Ethernet, second-generation Power Macintosh machines added a 10BASE-T port in addition to AAUI. The PowerBook 3400c and lower-end Power Macs also added 10BASE-T. The Power Macintosh 7300/8600/9600 were the final Macs to include AAUI, and 10BASE-T became universal starting with the Power Macintosh G3 and PowerBook G3.
### The capital-I Internet {#the_capital_i_internet}
From the beginning of AppleTalk, users wanted to connect the Macintosh to TCP/IP network environments. In 1984, Bill Croft at Stanford University pioneered the development of IP packets encapsulated in DDP as part of the SEAGATE (Stanford Ethernet--AppleTalk Gateway) project. SEAGATE was commercialized by Kinetics in their LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridge as an additional routing option. A few years later, MacIP was separated from the SEAGATE code and became the de facto method for IP packets to be routed over LocalTalk networks. By 1986, Columbia University released the first version of the Columbia AppleTalk Package (CAP) that allowed higher integration of Unix, TCP/IP, and AppleTalk environments. In 1988, Apple released MacTCP, a system that allowed the Mac to support TCP/IP on machines with suitable Ethernet hardware. However, this left many universities with the problem of supporting IP on their many LocalTalk-equipped Macs. It was soon common to include MacIP support in LocalTalk-to-Ethernet bridges. MacTCP would not become a standard part of the Classic Mac OS until 1994, by which time it also supported SNMP and PPP.
For some time in the early 1990s, the Mac was a primary client on the rapidly expanding Internet. Among the better-known programs in wide use were Fetch, Eudora, eXodus, NewsWatcher, and the NCSA packages, especially NCSA Mosaic and its offspring, Netscape Navigator. Additionally, a number of server products appeared that allowed the Mac to host Internet content. Through this period, Macs had about 2 to 3 times as many clients connected to the Internet as any other platform,`{{third-party inline|date=June 2012}}`{=mediawiki} despite the relatively small overall microcomputer market share.
As the world quickly moved to IP for both LAN and WAN uses, Apple was faced with maintaining two increasingly outdated code bases on an ever-wider group of machines as well as the introduction of the PowerPC-based machines. This led to the Open Transport efforts, which re-implemented both MacTCP and AppleTalk on an entirely new code base adapted from the Unix standard STREAMS. Early versions had problems and did not become stable for some time. By that point, Apple was deep in their ultimately doomed Copland efforts.
### Legacy and abandonment {#legacy_and_abandonment}
With the purchase of NeXT and subsequent development of Mac OS X, AppleTalk was strictly a legacy system. Support was added to Mac OS X in order to provide support for a large number of existing AppleTalk devices, notably laser printers and file shares, but alternate connection solutions common in this era, notably USB for printers, limited their demand. As Apple abandoned many of these product categories, and all new systems were based on IP, AppleTalk became less and less common. AppleTalk support was finally removed from the macOS line in Mac OS X v10.6 in 2009.
However, the loss of AppleTalk did not reduce the desire for networking solutions that combined its ease of use with IP routing. Apple has led the development of many such efforts, from the introduction of the AirPort router to the development of the zero-configuration networking system and their implementation of it, Rendezvous, later renamed *Bonjour*.
As of 2020, AppleTalk support has been completely removed from legacy support with macOS 11 Big Sur.
## Design
The AppleTalk design rigorously followed the OSI model of protocol layering. Unlike most of the early LAN systems, AppleTalk was not built using the archetypal Xerox XNS system. The intended target was not Ethernet, and it did not have 48-bit addresses to route. Nevertheless, many portions of the AppleTalk system have direct analogs in XNS.
One key differentiation for AppleTalk was it contained two protocols aimed at making the system completely self-configuring. The *AppleTalk address resolution protocol* (*AARP*) allowed AppleTalk hosts to automatically generate their own network addresses, and the *Name Binding Protocol* (*NBP*) was a dynamic system for mapping network addresses to user-readable names. Although systems similar to AARP existed in other systems, Banyan VINES for instance. Beginning about 2002 Rendezvous (the combination of DNS-based service discovery, Multicast DNS, and link-local addressing) provided capabilities and usability using IP that were similar to those of AppleTalk.
Both AARP and NBP had defined ways to allow \"controller\" devices to override the default mechanisms. The concept was to allow routers to provide the information or \"hardwire\" the system to known addresses and names. On larger networks where AARP could cause problems as new nodes searched for free addresses, the addition of a router could reduce \"chattiness.\" Together AARP and NBP made AppleTalk an easy-to-use networking system. New machines were added to the network by plugging them in and optionally giving them a name. The NBP lists were examined and displayed by a program known as the *Chooser* which would display a list of machines on the local network, divided into classes such as file-servers and printers.
## Addressing
An AppleTalk address was a four-byte quantity. This consisted of a two-byte network number, a one-byte node number, and a one-byte socket number. Of these, only the network number required any configuration, being obtained from a router. Each node dynamically chose its own node number, according to a protocol (originally the LocalTalk Link Access Protocol LLAP and later, for Ethernet/EtherTalk, the AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol, AARP) which handled contention between different nodes accidentally choosing the same number. For socket numbers, a few well-known numbers were reserved for special purposes specific to the AppleTalk protocol itself. Apart from these, all application-level protocols were expected to use dynamically assigned socket numbers at both the client and server end.
Because of this dynamism, users could not be expected to access services by specifying their address. Instead, all services had *names* which, being chosen by humans, could be expected to be meaningful to users, and also could be sufficiently long to minimize the chance of conflicts.
As NBP names translated to an address, which included a socket number as well as a node number, a name in AppleTalk mapped directly to a *service* being provided by a machine, which was entirely separate from the name of the machine itself. Thus, services could be moved to a different machine and, so long as they kept the same service name, there was no need for users to do anything different in order to continue accessing the service. And the same machine could host any number of instances of services of the same type, without any network connection conflicts.
Contrast this with *A records* in the DNS, in which a name translates to a machine\'s address, not including the port number that might be providing a service. Thus, if people are accustomed to using a particular machine name to access a particular service, their access will break when the service is moved to a different machine. This can be mitigated somewhat by insistence on using *CNAME records* indicating service rather than actual machine names to refer to the service, but there is no way of guaranteeing that users will follow such a convention. Some newer protocols, such as Kerberos and Active Directory use DNS SRV records to identify services by name, which is much closer to the AppleTalk model.`{{original research inline|date=June 2012}}`{=mediawiki}
## Protocols
### AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol {#appletalk_address_resolution_protocol}
The AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol (AARP) resolves AppleTalk addresses to link layer addresses. It is functionally equivalent to ARP and obtains address resolution by a method very similar to ARP.
AARP is a fairly simple system. When powered on, an AppleTalk machine broadcasts an *AARP probe packet* asking for a network address, intending to hear back from controllers such as routers. If no address is provided, one is picked at random from the \"base subnet\", 0. It then broadcasts another packet saying \"I am selecting this address\", and then waits to see if anyone else on the network complains. If another machine has that address, the newly connecting machine will pick another address, and keep trying until it finds a free one. On a network with many machines it may take several tries before a free address is found, so for performance purposes the successful address is recorded in NVRAM and used as the default address in the future. This means that in most real-world setups where machines are added a few at a time, only one or two tries are needed before the address effectively becomes constant.
### AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol {#appletalk_data_stream_protocol}
The AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP) was a comparatively late addition to the AppleTalk protocol suite, done when it became clear that a TCP-style reliable connection-oriented transport was needed. Significant differences from TCP were that:
- A connection attempt could be rejected.
- There were no \"half-open\" connections; once one end initiated a tear-down of the connection, the whole connection would be closed (*i.e.*, ADSP is full-duplex, not dual simplex).
- AppleTalk had an included attention message system which allowed short messages to be sent which would bypass the normal stream data flow. These were delivered reliably but out of order with respect to the stream. Any attention message would be delivered as soon as possible instead of waiting for the current stream byte sequence point to become current.
### Apple Filing Protocol {#apple_filing_protocol}
The Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), formerly AppleTalk Filing Protocol, is the protocol for communicating with AppleShare file servers. Built on top of AppleTalk Session Protocol (for legacy AFP over DDP) or the Data Stream Interface (for AFP over TCP), it provides services for authenticating users (extensible to different authentication methods including two-way random-number exchange) and for performing operations specific to the Macintosh HFS filesystem. AFP is still in use in macOS, even though most other AppleTalk protocols have been deprecated.
### AppleTalk Session Protocol {#appletalk_session_protocol}
The AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) was an intermediate protocol, built on top of AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP), which in turn was the foundation of AFP. It provided basic services for requesting responses to arbitrary *commands* and performing out-of-band status queries. It also allowed the server to send asynchronous *attention* messages to the client.
### AppleTalk Transaction Protocol {#appletalk_transaction_protocol}
The AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP) was the original reliable transport-level protocol for AppleTalk, built on top of DDP. At the time it was being developed, a full, reliable connection-oriented protocol like TCP was considered to be too expensive to implement for most of the intended uses of AppleTalk. Thus, ATP was a simple request/response exchange, with no need to set up or tear down connections.
An ATP *request* packet could be answered by up to eight *response* packets. The requestor then sent an *acknowledgement* packet containing a bit mask indicating which of the response packets it received, so the responder could retransmit the remainder.
ATP could operate in either \"at-least-once\" mode or \"exactly-once\" mode. Exactly-once mode was essential for operations which were not idempotent; in this mode, the responder kept a copy of the response buffers in memory until successful receipt of a *release* packet from the requestor, or until a timeout elapsed. This way, it could respond to duplicate requests with the same transaction ID by resending the same response data, without performing the actual operation again.
### Datagram Delivery Protocol {#datagram_delivery_protocol}
The Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP) was the lowest-level data-link-independent transport protocol. It provided a datagram service with no guarantees of delivery. All application-level protocols, including the infrastructure protocols NBP, RTMP and ZIP, were built on top of DDP. AppleTalk\'s DDP corresponds closely to the Network layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model.
### Name Binding Protocol {#name_binding_protocol}
The Name Binding Protocol (NBP) was a dynamic, distributed system for managing AppleTalk names. When a service started up on a machine, it registered a name for itself as chosen by a human administrator. At this point, NBP provided a system for checking that no other machine had already registered the same name. Later, when a client wanted to access that service, it used NBP to query machines to find that service. NBP provided browsability (\"what are the names of all the services available?\") as well as the ability to find a service with a particular name. Names were human-readable, containing spaces and upper- and lower-case letters, and including support for searching.
### AppleTalk Echo Protocol {#appletalk_echo_protocol}
The AppleTalk Echo Protocol (AEP) was a transport layer protocol designed to test the reachability of network nodes. AEP generates packets to be sent to the network node and is identified in the Type field of a packet as an AEP packet. The packet is first passed to the source DDP. After it is identified as an AEP packet, it is forwarded to the node where the packet is examined by the DDP at the destination. After the packet is identified as an AEP packet, the packet is then copied and a field in the packet is altered to create an AEP reply packet, and is then returned to the source node.
### Printer Access Protocol {#printer_access_protocol}
The Printer Access Protocol (PAP) was the standard way of communicating with PostScript printers. It was built on top of ATP. When a PAP connection was opened, each end sent the other an ATP request which basically meant \"send me more data\". The client\'s response to the server was to send a block of PostScript code, while the server could respond with any diagnostic messages that might be generated as a result, after which another \"send-more-data\" request was sent. This use of ATP provided automatic flow control; each end could only send data to the other end if there was an outstanding ATP request to respond to.
PAP also provided for out-of-band status queries, handled by separate ATP transactions. Even while it was busy servicing a print job from one client, a PAP server could continue to respond to status requests from any number of other clients. This allowed other Macintoshes on the LAN that were waiting to print to display status messages indicating that the printer was busy, and what the job was that it was busy with.
### Routing Table Maintenance Protocol {#routing_table_maintenance_protocol}
The Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP) was the protocol by which routers kept each other informed about the topology of the network. This was the only part of AppleTalk that required periodic unsolicited broadcasts: every 10 seconds, each router had to send out a list of all the network numbers it knew about and how far away it thought they were.
### Zone Information Protocol {#zone_information_protocol}
The Zone Information Protocol (ZIP) was the protocol by which AppleTalk network numbers were associated with zone names. A *zone* was a subdivision of the network that made sense to humans (for example, \"Accounting Department\"); but while a network number had to be assigned to a topologically contiguous section of the network, a zone could include several different discontiguous portions of the network.
## Physical implementation {#physical_implementation}
The initial default hardware implementation for AppleTalk was a high-speed serial protocol known as *LocalTalk* that used the Macintosh\'s built-in RS-422 ports at 230.4 kbit/s. LocalTalk used a splitter box in the RS-422 port to provide an upstream and downstream cable from a single port. The topology was a bus: cables were daisy-chained from each connected machine to the next, up to the maximum of 32 permitted on any LocalTalk segment. The system was slow by today\'s standards, but at the time the additional cost and complexity of networking on PC machines was such that it was common that Macs were the only networked personal computers in an office. Other larger computers, such as UNIX or VAX workstations, would commonly be networked via Ethernet.
Other physical implementations were also available. A very popular replacement for LocalTalk was *PhoneNET*, a third-party solution from Farallon Computing, Inc. (renamed Netopia, acquired by Motorola in 2007) that also used the RS-422 port and was indistinguishable from LocalTalk as far as Apple\'s LocalTalk port drivers were concerned, but ran over very inexpensive standard phone cabling with four-wire, six-position modular connectors, the same cables used to connect landline telephones. Since it used the second pair of wires, network devices could even be connected through existing telephone jacks if a second line was not present. Foreshadowing today\'s network hubs and switches, Farallon provided solutions for PhoneNet to be used in *star* as well as *bus* configurations, with both *passive* star connections (with the phone wires simply bridged to each other at a central point), and *active* star with \"PhoneNet Star Controller\" hub hardware. In a star configuration, any wiring issue only affected one device, and problems were easy to pinpoint. PhoneNet\'s low cost, flexibility, and easy troubleshooting resulted in it being the dominant choice for Mac networks into the early 1990s.
AppleTalk protocols also came to run over Ethernet (first coaxial and then twisted pair) and Token Ring physical layers, labeled by Apple as *EtherTalk* and *TokenTalk*, respectively. EtherTalk gradually became the dominant implementation method for AppleTalk as Ethernet became generally popular in the PC industry throughout the 1990s. Besides AppleTalk and TCP/IP, any Ethernet network could also simultaneously carry other protocols such as DECnet and IPX.
## Networking model {#networking_model}
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
| OSI Model | Corresponding AppleTalk layers |
+==============+===========================================+
| Application | Apple Filing Protocol (AFP) |
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Presentation | Apple Filing Protocol (AFP) |
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Session | Zone Information Protocol (ZIP)\ |
| | AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)\ |
| | AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP) |
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Transport | AppleTalk Transaction Protocol (ATP)\ |
| | AppleTalk Echo Protocol (AEP)\ |
| | Name Binding Protocol (NBP)\ |
| | Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP) |
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Network | Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP) |
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Data link | EtherTalk Link Access Protocol (ELAP)\ |
| | LocalTalk Link Access Protocol (LLAP)\ |
| | TokenTalk Link Access Protocol (TLAP)\ |
| | Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) |
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
| Physical | LocalTalk driver\ |
| | Ethernet driver\ |
| | Token Ring driver\ |
| | FDDI driver |
+--------------+-------------------------------------------+
## Versions
AppleTalk version Apple Filing Protocol Corresponds to Notes
------------------- ----------------------- ----------------- ----------------------
56 System 7.0
57.0.4 System 7.12
58.1.1 System 7.1.2
58.1.3 System 7.5
60.3 Mac OS 7.6.1 Open Transport 1.3
60.0a6 Mac OS 8.6 Open Transport 2.0.3
3.0 Mac OS X 10.0.3
2.1, 2.0 and even 1.1 Mac OS X v10.2
2.2, 3.0 and 3.1 Mac OS X v10.3
3.2 Mac OS X v10.4
## Cross-platform solutions {#cross_platform_solutions}
By contrast to Macs, in the late 1980s no dominant LAN hardware standard existed`{{r|didio19880711}}`{=mediawiki} for the most popular office computing platform, the PC compatible running MS-DOS. Apple introduced the AppleTalk PC Card in early 1987, allowing PCs to join AppleTalk networks and print to LaserWriter printers. A year later AppleShare PC was released, allowing PCs to access AppleShare file servers.
The \"TOPS Teleconnector\" MS-DOS networking system over AppleTalk system enabled MS-DOS PCs to communicate over AppleTalk network hardware; it comprised an AppleTalk interface card for the PC and a suite of networking software allowing such functions as file, drive and printer sharing. As well as allowing the construction of a PC-only AppleTalk network, it allowed communication between PCs and Macs with TOPS software installed. (Macs without TOPS installed could use the same network but only to communicate with other Apple machines.) The Mac TOPS software did not match the quality of Apple\'s own either in ease of use or in robustness and freedom from crashes, but the DOS software was relatively simple to use in DOS terms, and was robust.
The BSD and Linux operating systems support AppleTalk through an open source project called Netatalk, which implements the complete protocol suite and allows them to both act as native file or print servers for Macintosh computers, and print to LocalTalk printers over the network.
The Windows Server operating systems supported AppleTalk starting with Windows NT and ending after Windows Server 2003. Miramar included AppleTalk in its PC MacLAN product which was discontinued by CA in 2007. GroupLogic continues to bundle its AppleTalk protocol with its ExtremeZ-IP server software for Macintosh-Windows integration which supports Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista as well prior versions. HELIOS Software GmbH offers a proprietary implementation of the AppleTalk protocol stack, as part of their HELIOS UB2 server. This is essentially a File and Print Server suite that runs on a whole range of different platforms.
In addition, Columbia University released the Columbia AppleTalk Package (CAP) which implemented the protocol suite for various Unix flavours including Ultrix, SunOS, BSD and IRIX. This package is no longer actively maintained.
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Aliphatic compound
|
In organic chemistry, hydrocarbons (compounds composed solely of carbon and hydrogen) are divided into two classes: aromatic compounds and **aliphatic compounds** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|l|ᵻ|ˈ|f|æ|t|ᵻ|k}}`{=mediawiki}; G. *aleiphar*, fat, oil). Aliphatic compounds can be saturated (in which all the C-C bonds are single, requiring the structure to be completed, or \'saturated\', by hydrogen) like hexane, or unsaturated, like hexene and hexyne. Open-chain compounds, whether straight or branched, and which contain no rings of any type, are always aliphatic. Cyclic compounds can be aliphatic if they are not aromatic.
## Structure
Aliphatics compounds can be saturated, joined by single bonds (alkanes), or unsaturated, with double bonds (alkenes) or triple bonds (alkynes). If other elements (heteroatoms) are bound to the carbon chain, the most common being oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine, it is no longer a hydrocarbon, and therefore no longer an aliphatic compound. However, such compounds may still be referred to as aliphatic if the hydrocarbon portion of the molecule is aliphatic, e.g. aliphatic amines, to differentiate them from aromatic amines.
The least complex aliphatic compound is methane (CH~4~).
## Properties
Most aliphatic compounds are flammable, allowing the use of hydrocarbons as fuel, such as methane in natural gas for stoves or heating; butane in torches and lighters; various aliphatic (as well as aromatic) hydrocarbons in liquid transportation fuels like petrol/gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel; and other uses such as ethyne (acetylene) in welding.
## Examples of aliphatic compounds {#examples_of_aliphatic_compounds}
The most important aliphatic compounds are:
- n-, iso- and cyclo-alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons)
- n-, iso- and cyclo-alkenes and -alkynes (unsaturated hydrocarbons).
Important examples of low-molecular aliphatic compounds can be found in the list below (sorted by the number of carbon-atoms):
Formula Name Structural formula Chemical classification
--------- ------------------- -------------------- --------------------------------
Methane Alkane
Acetylene Alkyne
Ethylene Alkene
Ethane Alkane
Propadiene Diene
Propyne Alkyne
Propylene Alkene
Propane Alkane
1,2-Butadiene Diene
1-Butyne Alkyne
1-Butene Alkene
Butane Alkane
Pentane Alkane
Cyclohexene Cycloalkene
Cyclohexane Cycloalkane
Hexane Alkane
Methylcyclohexane Cycloalkane
Cubane Prismane, Platonic hydrocarbon
Octane Alkane
Dicyclopentadiene Diene, Cycloalkene
Terpinene Terpene, Diene, Cycloalkene
Phellandrene Terpene, Diene, Cycloalkene
Limonene Terpene, Diene, Cycloalkene
Decane Alkane
Squalene Terpene, Polyene
Polyethylene Alkane
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Algebraic extension
|
In mathematics, an **algebraic extension** is a field extension `{{math|''L''/''K''}}`{=mediawiki} such that every element of the larger field `{{mvar|L}}`{=mediawiki} is algebraic over the smaller field `{{mvar|K}}`{=mediawiki}; that is, every element of `{{mvar|L}}`{=mediawiki} is a root of a non-zero polynomial with coefficients in `{{mvar|K}}`{=mediawiki}. A field extension that is not algebraic, is said to be transcendental, and must contain transcendental elements, that is, elements that are not algebraic.
The algebraic extensions of the field $\Q$ of the rational numbers are called algebraic number fields and are the main objects of study of algebraic number theory. Another example of a common algebraic extension is the extension $\Complex/\R$ of the real numbers by the complex numbers.
## Some properties {#some_properties}
All transcendental extensions are of infinite degree. This in turn implies that all finite extensions are algebraic. The converse is not true however: there are infinite extensions which are algebraic. For instance, the field of all algebraic numbers is an infinite algebraic extension of the rational numbers.
Let `{{math|''E''}}`{=mediawiki} be an extension field of `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{math|''a'' ∈ ''E''}}`{=mediawiki}. The smallest subfield of `{{math|''E''}}`{=mediawiki} that contains `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} is commonly denoted $K(a).$ If `{{mvar|''a''}}`{=mediawiki} is algebraic over `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki}, then the elements of `{{math|''K''(''a'')}}`{=mediawiki} can be expressed as polynomials in `{{mvar|''a''}}`{=mediawiki} with coefficients in *K*; that is, $K(a)=K[a]$, the smallest ring containing `{{math|''K''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki}. In this case, $K(a)$ is a finite extension of `{{mvar|K}}`{=mediawiki} and all its elements are algebraic over `{{mvar|K}}`{=mediawiki}. In particular, $K(a)$ is a `{{mvar|K}}`{=mediawiki}-vector space with basis $\{1,a,...,a^{d-1}\}$, where *d* is the degree of the minimal polynomial of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki}. These properties do not hold if `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} is not algebraic. For example, $\Q(\pi)\neq \Q[\pi],$ and they are both infinite dimensional vector spaces over $\Q.$
An algebraically closed field *F* has no proper algebraic extensions, that is, no algebraic extensions *E* with *F* \< *E*. An example is the field of complex numbers. Every field has an algebraic extension which is algebraically closed (called its algebraic closure), but proving this in general requires some form of the axiom of choice.
An extension *L*/*K* is algebraic if and only if every sub *K*-algebra of *L* is a field.
## Properties
The following three properties hold:
1. If *E* is an algebraic extension of *F* and *F* is an algebraic extension of *K* then *E* is an algebraic extension of *K*.
2. If *E* and *F* are algebraic extensions of *K* in a common overfield *C*, then the compositum *EF* is an algebraic extension of *K*.
3. If *E* is an algebraic extension of *F* and *E* \> *K* \> *F* then *E* is an algebraic extension of *K*.
These finitary results can be generalized using transfinite induction:
This fact, together with Zorn\'s lemma (applied to an appropriately chosen poset), establishes the existence of algebraic closures.
## Generalizations
Model theory generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary theories: an embedding of *M* into *N* is called an **algebraic extension** if for every *x* in *N* there is a formula *p* with parameters in *M*, such that *p*(*x*) is true and the set
$$\left\{y\in N \mid p(y)\right\}$$
is finite. It turns out that applying this definition to the theory of fields gives the usual definition of algebraic extension. The Galois group of *N* over *M* can again be defined as the group of automorphisms, and it turns out that most of the theory of Galois groups can be developed for the general case.
## Relative algebraic closures {#relative_algebraic_closures}
Given a field *k* and a field *K* containing *k*, one defines the **relative algebraic closure** of *k* in *K* to be the subfield of *K* consisting of all elements of *K* that are algebraic over *k*, that is all elements of *K* that are a root of some nonzero polynomial with coefficients in *k*.
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Aster CT-80
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The **Aster CT-80** is a 1982 personal computer developed by the small Dutch company MCP (later renamed to Aster Computers), was sold in its first incarnation as a kit for hobbyists. Later it was sold ready to use. It consisted of several Eurocard PCB\'s with DIN 41612 connectors, and a backplane all based on a 19-inch rack configuration. It was the first commercially available Dutch personal/home computer. The Aster computer could use the software written for the popular Tandy TRS-80 computer while fixing many of the problems of that computer, but it could also run CP/M software, with a large amount of free memory Transient Program Area, (TPA) and a full 80×25 display, and it could be used as a Videotext terminal. Although the Aster was a clone of the TRS-80 Model I it was in fact more compatible with the TRS-80 Model III and ran all the software of these systems including games. It also had a built-in speaker which was compatible with such games software.
## Models
Three models were sold. The first model (launched June 1982) looked like the IBM PC, a rectangular base unit with two floppy drives on the front, and a monitor on top with a separate detachable keyboard. The second incarnation was a much smaller unit the width of two 5`{{frac|1|4}}`{=mediawiki}\" floppy drives stacked on top of each other, and the third incarnation looked like a flattened Apple with a built-in keyboard.
All units ran much faster than the original TRS-80, at 4 MHz, (with a software selectable throttle to the original speed for compatibility purposes) and the display supported upper and lower case, hardware snow suppression (video ram bus arbitration logic), and an improved character font set. The floppy disk interface supported dual density, and disk capacities up to 800 KB, more than four times the capacity of the original TRS-80. A special version of NewDos/80, (an improved TRS-DOS compatible Disk operating system) was used to support these disk capacities when using the TRS-80 compatibility mode.
For the educational market a version of the first model was produced with a new plastic enclosure (the First Asters had an all-metal enclosure) that also had an opening on the top in which a cassette recorder could be placed. This model was used in a cluster with one Aster (with disk drives) for the teacher, and eight disk less versions for the pupils. The pupils could download software from the teachers computer through a network based on a fast serial connection, as well as sending back their work to the teachers computer. There was also hardware in place through which the teacher could see the display of each pupils screen on his own monitor.
## Working modes {#working_modes}
The Aster used 64 KB of RAM and had the unique feature of supporting two fundamentally different internal architectures: when turned on without a boot floppy or with a TRS-DOS floppy, the Aster would be fully TRS-80 compatible, with 48 KB of RAM. When the boot loader detected a CP/M floppy, the Aster would reconfigure its internal memory architecture on the fly to optimally support CP/M with 60 KB free RAM for programs (TPA) and an 80 x 25 display. This dual-architecture capability only existed on one other TRS-80 clone, the LOBO Max-80.
With a special configuration tool, the CT-80 could reconfigure its floppy drivers to read and write the floppies of about 80 other CP/M systems.
A third mode was entered with a special boot floppy which turned the Aster into a Videotex terminal with a 40x25 display and a Videotex character set, The software used the built in RS-232 interface of the Aster to control a modem through which it could contact a Prestel service provider.
## Sales
Most Aster CT-80\'s (about 10 thousand of them) were sold to schools for computer education, in a project first known as the \"honderd scholen project\" (one hundred schools project), but which later involved many more than just one hundred schools. MCP received this order from the Dutch government because their computer met all the technical and other demands, including the demand that the computers should be of Dutch origin and should be built in the Netherlands. Another important demand was that the computers could be used in a network (Aster developed special software and hardware for that). Later however the Government turned around and gave 50% of the order to Philips and their P2000 homecomputer even though the P2000 did not meet all the technical demands, was made in Austria and did not have network hardware nor software.
## Company
Aster computers was based in the small town of Arkel near the town of Gorinchem. Initially Aster computer b.v. was called MCP (Music print Computer Product), because it was specialized in producing computer assisted printing of sheet music. The director of the company was interested in Microprocessor technology and noticed there was a market for selling kits to computer building amateurs, so they started selling electronic kits to hobbyists, and employed four persons at that time . They also assembled kits for people without soldering skills, especially the \"junior Computer\" from Elektor (a copy of the KIM-1), and the ZX80 from Sinclair. Among the kits sold there were also alternative floppy disk drives for TRS-80 computers. But these needed the infamous TRS-80 expansion interface, which was very expensive, and had a very unreliable floppy disk controller because it used the WD1771 floppy disk controller chip without an external \"data separator\". To fix this problem MCP developed a small plugin board which could be plugged into the socket for the WD1771, and which contained a data separator, and a socket for the WD1791 to support dual-density operation. Still, the expansion interface was expensive and due to its design it was also unreliable. So they decided to also develop their own alternative in the form of an improved floppy disk controller and printer interface that could be built right into a floppy disk enclosure. The lack of RAM expansion offered by this solution was solved by a service in which the 16 KB RAM chips inside the base unit would be replaced by 64 KB RAM chips. While this went on MCP renamed itself to *MCP CHIP* but ran into problems with the German computer magazine *CHIP*, and had to return to its former name. At that time MCP did also sell imported home computers like the TRS-80, the Video Genie (another TRS-80 clone), the Luxor ABC 80 and the Apple II. They also sold the exotic Olivetti M20, a very early 16-bit personal computer that was one of the very few systems to use a Z8000 CPU.
After designing their own fully functional replacement for the TRS-80 expansion interface (which was never commercialized) the company realized that they could do better than just re-designing the expansion interface. They observed that the TRS-80 was a great computer but it lacked in several areas. The display logic and resulting display \'snow\' was irritating, as was the missing lower case support, the CPU speed could be improved, the quality and layout of the keyboard was bothersome, and the floppy disk capacity and reliability was low. Also the more interesting software offered for CP/M systems could not run well on a TRS-80. So they decided to design a TRS-80 and CP/M software-compatible computer system, which (following the lead of Apple Computer) they decided to name after a \"typical Dutch flower\". So they called it the Aster CT-80 (**C**P/M/**T**andy**-**19**80**). Why they went with Aster, and not the more well known Tulip is unknown, perhaps they thought it would be to presumptuous, or perhaps the fact that \"Aster\" is also a Dutch girls\' name has something to do with it. Remarkably \"Aster\" was also the name given to a Dutch Supercomputer much later, in 2002.
The first version of the Aster consisted of four \"Eurocards\", one Z80 CPU card with 64 KB memory, one Motorola MC6845-based video card, one double density floppy disk controller card and one \"keyboard/RS-232/cassette interface\" card. Plus a \"backplane card\", (which connected all the other cards) and a keyboard. And was intended for hobbyists, to be sold as a kit consisting of the parts and the PCB\'s for the computer and attached keyboard. After selling a few kits, MCP became convinced there was a much bigger market for an improved model sold as a completed working system. However the original kit version lacked many features that prevented its use as a serious computer system. Because the original designer had left the company another employee completely redesigned most of the system, (adding a display snow remover circuit, true 80/64 column text mode support, (with different size letters for TRS-80 and CP/M mode, so that in TRS-80 mode the full screen was also used, not just a 64×16 portion of the 80×25 screen) with an improved font set (adding \"gray scale\" version of the TRS-80 mozaik graphics and many special PETSCII like characters), and a more flexible and reliable floppy disk controller and keyboard interface plus many other small improvements), also an enclosure was developed for the main computer system, (in the form of a 19-inch rack for the Eurocards) and for two floppy disk drives and the power supply. A software engineer was hired to write the special \"dual boot mode\" BIOS and the special CP/M BIOS. The \"dual boot mode\" BIOS actually discovered whether a TRS-DOS, or Aster CP/M disk was placed in the drive, and would, depending on the type of disk, reorganise the internal memory architecture of the system, to either be 100% TRS-80 compatible or optimally support CP/M, with as much \"workspace\" as possible, and the 80×25 video mode. It also was responsible for switching to ROM BASIC when the system was turned on with the break key pressed, and later supported a primitive LAN system, using the RS-232 port with modified cabling. The very first of the ready made computers were sold with the \"kit\" versions of the euro cards, the version with redesigned cards came a month or so later.
Soon the little shop became much too small and they moved to a much larger factory building nearby (formerly a window glass factory), and started mass-producing the Aster for a period of a few years, in which time its staff grew twentyfold.
After the Aster having been a few years on the Market Tandy released its own improved model, the TRS-80 Model III computer which solved many of the same problems that the Aster also had solved, but the model 3 still did not fully support CP/M as the Aster did. In the meantime IBM had released its original IBM PC, which incidentally looked remarkably like the Asters base with floppy drives + separate keyboard set-up.
The Aster was chosen for Dutch schools by the Dutch ministry of education, in a set-up with eight disk-less Asters, and one Aster with high-capacity floppy drives all connected by a LAN based on the Aster\'s high-speed serial port hardware, and special cables that permitted that any single computer on the LAN could broadcast to all other computers. The floppy based system was operated by the teacher who could send programs from his floppy disk, and data, to the student\'s disk-less systems thanks to the special BIOS in those systems. The students could send programs and data back to the teacher through the same LAN, or could save to a cassette recorder built into the disk-less units. Through a special \"video-switch\" the teacher was also able to see a copy of each student\'s display on his own screen. About a thousand of such systems were sold for many hundreds of Dutch schools.
Because of cash flow problems (resulting from growing too fast, insufficient financial backing, technical problems, and a sudden problem with Z80 processor deliveries) the company suddenly folded even before it came to full fruition.
Perhaps the Aster computer inspired another Dutch computer firm to name their computer after another typical Dutch flower---the Tulip\'s Tulip System-1 which appeared about the same time Aster folded.
Most of the engineers who designed the hardware and software of the Aster went on to design hardware and software for the (then new) MSX system for a company called \"Micro Technology b.v.\".
## Unreleased add ons {#unreleased_add_ons}
To enhance and modernize the Aster CT-80 the company also designed three alternative video display adapters to supplement or replace the TRS-80 compatible video card, (due to the modular nature of the Aster it was simply a matter of changing the video card, and/or CPU card to upgrade the system):
- A very High resolution monochrome video card with blitter and hardware text line and arc drawing capability, was designed for CAD applications, based on the NEC μPD7220 chip designed for graphic terminals, but was also used by some personal computers like the DEC Rainbow, and notably also for the Tulip System I.
- A colour video card with sprite capability based on the same TMS9918 video chip as the TI-99/4 and MSX computers, designed for gaming, and more creative and colorful educational software. A working prototype of this card was finished.
- A replacement card for the original TRS-80 compatible video card, software compatible to the original one, but with added color and very high resolution capabilities. was also on the drawing board. Based on a newer, slightly more flexible, version of the Asters original Motorola MC6845 video chip, the Rockwell 6545, it worked by adding a new video mode, one with the ability to reprogram an extended, (2048 characters instead of 256 characters) version of the character set, supported by an extended character memory of the video card that did not use one (8 bit) byte per character, but an 11 bit \"word\", so it could address each one of the available 2048 unique programmable characters. This meant it could provide a separate programmable character for all of the 1024 (64x16) or 2000 (80x25) characters on the screen. By filling the character pointer memory with values from zero to 1999 this essentially turned the text mode display into a very high resolution graphics mode, with the \"font memory\", acting as the high resolution Raster graphics video memory. Because the characters were 8 x 12 pixels this meant that video resolutions of 512 x 192 pixels (in 64x16 character mode), or 640 x 300 pixels (in 80x25 character mode) were created, which was quite high for the time. The \"double width\" mode of the TRS-80 was also supported, so 256 x 192 pixels (in 32x16 character mode), or 320 x 300 pixels (in 40x25 character mode) were also possible. The video card also supported 16 foreground and 16 background colors per character, by providing one byte per character position (2K) of \"color ram\". One nibble of such a byte then controlled the foreground color, and the other nibble controlled the background color, a system very similar to the ZX Spectrum, in fact in the 256x192 mode the display mode was virtually identical to the video of the ZX Spectrum. The color memory was also available in the \"normal\" TRS-80 and CP/M text modes, which meant that existing TRS-80 and CP/M software could be easily modified to add color. This video card would also support fast scrolling of high resolution color screens for games, because it had the indirection of the character pointers, so it was possible to quickly scroll the high resolution display, (or use other effects) by simply manipulating the 1920/1024 bytes of text video instead of the 24,576 bytes of high-resolution video memory.
A hard disk interface was also in the works, which would, add a SCSI interface, and the necessary software. A working prototype was developed that added a 40MB hard disk.
On the software front, work was being done to implement the replacement for the aging \"user interface\" of CP/M, (the Command Console Processor CCP) with the more modern ZCPR.
Finally a replacement for the aging Z80 processor was being developed in the form of an Intel 8086 board, and additional 512K 16 bit memory boards. Such replacements of CPU and memory system components were possible because the Aster CT-80 was designed to use a backplane that was designed to support both 8 and 16 bit processors, and used a modular Eurocard based design with slots to spare for expansion. In theory the system could support the Z80 and the 8086 simultaneously. Plans were formulated to support CP/M-86 and even MS-DOS.
None of these extensions to the system became available because the company folded before any of them could be released.
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Armour
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**Armour** (Commonwealth English) or **armor** (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or from a potentially dangerous environment or activity (e.g. cycling, construction sites, etc.). Personal armour is used to protect soldiers and war animals. Vehicle armour is used on warships, armoured fighting vehicles, and some combat aircraft, mostly ground attack aircraft.
A second use of the term *armour* describes armoured forces, armoured weapons, and their role in combat. After the development of armoured warfare, tanks and mechanised infantry and their combat formations came to be referred to collectively as \"armour\".
## Etymology
The word \"armour\" began to appear in the Middle Ages as a derivative of Old French. It is dated from 1297 as a \"mail, defensive covering worn in combat\". The word originates from the Old French *armure*, itself derived from the Latin *armatura* meaning \"arms and/or equipment\", with the root *armare* meaning \"arms or gear\".
## Personal
Armour has been used throughout recorded history. It has been made from a variety of materials, beginning with the use of leathers or fabrics as protection and evolving through chain mail and metal plate into today\'s modern composites. For much of military history the manufacture of metal personal armour has dominated the technology and employment of armour.
Armour drove the development of many important technologies of the Ancient World, including wood lamination, mining, metal refining, vehicle manufacture, leather processing, and later decorative metal working. Its production was influential in the Industrial Revolution, and furthered commercial development of metallurgy and engineering. Armour was also an important factor in the development of firearms, which in turn revolutionised warfare.
### History
Significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. For instance, plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. At times the development of armour has paralleled the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.
Well-known armour types in European history include the lorica hamata, lorica squamata, and the lorica segmentata of the Roman legions, the mail hauberk of the early medieval age, and the full steel plate harness worn by later medieval and renaissance knights, and breast and back plates worn by heavy cavalry in several European countries until the first year of World War I (1914--1915). The samurai warriors of Feudal Japan utilised many types of armour for hundreds of years up to the 19th century.
#### Early
The first record of body armor in history was found on the Stele of Vultures in ancient Sumer in today\'s south Iraq, and various forms of scale mail can be seen in surviving records from the New Kingdom of Egypt, Zhou dynasty China, and dynastic India. Cuirasses and helmets were manufactured in Japan as early as the 4th century. *Tankō*, worn by foot soldiers and *keikō*, worn by horsemen were both pre-samurai types of early Japanese armour constructed from iron plates connected together by leather thongs. Japanese lamellar armour (*keiko*) passed through Korea and reached Japan around the 5th century. These early Japanese lamellar armours took the form of a sleeveless jacket, leggings and a helmet.
Armour did not always cover all of the body; sometimes no more than a helmet and leg plates were worn. The rest of the body was generally protected by means of a large shield. An example of armies equipping their troops in this fashion were the Aztecs (13th to 15th century CE).
In East Asia, many types of armour were commonly used at different times by various cultures, including scale armour, lamellar armour, laminar armour, plated mail, mail, plate armour, and brigandine. Around the dynastic Tang, Song, and early Ming Period, cuirasses and plates (mingguangjia) were also used, with more elaborate versions for officers in war. The Chinese, during that time used partial plates for \"important\" body parts instead of covering their whole body since too much plate armour hinders their martial arts movement. The other body parts were covered in cloth, leather, lamellar, or mountain pattern armor. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armour was made out of various animals, with more exotic ones such as the rhinoceros.
Mail, sometimes called \"chainmail\", made of interlocking iron rings is believed to have first appeared some time after 300 BC. Its invention is credited to the Celts; the Romans are thought to have adopted their design.
Gradually, small additional plates or discs of iron were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. Hardened leather and splinted construction were used for arm and leg pieces. The coat of plates was developed, an armour made of large plates sewn inside a textile or leather coat.
#### 13th to 18th century Europe {#th_to_18th_century_europe}
Early plate in Italy, and elsewhere in the 13th--15th century, were made of iron. Iron armour could be carburised or case hardened to give a surface of harder steel. Plate armour became cheaper than mail by the 15th century as it required much less labour and labour had become much more expensive after the Black Death, though it did require larger furnaces to produce larger blooms. Mail continued to be used to protect those joints which could not be adequately protected by plate, such as the armpit, crook of the elbow and groin. Another advantage of plate was that a lance rest could be fitted to the breast plate.
The small skull cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, the bascinet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. Additionally, several new forms of fully enclosed helmets were introduced in the late 14th century.
Probably the most recognised style of armour in the world became the plate armour associated with the knights of the European Late Middle Ages, but continuing to the early 17th century Baroque period in all European countries.
By 1400, the full harness of plate armour had been developed in armouries of Lombardy. Heavy cavalry dominated the battlefield for centuries in part because of their armour.
In the early 15th century, advances in weaponry allowed infantry to defeat armoured knights on the battlefield. The quality of the metal used in armour deteriorated as armies became bigger and armour was made thicker, necessitating breeding of larger cavalry horses. If during the 14--15th centuries armour seldom weighed more than 15 kg, then by the late 16th century it weighed 25 kg. The increasing weight and thickness of late 16th century armour therefore gave substantial resistance.
In the early years of low velocity firearms, full suits of armour, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. Crossbow bolts, if still in use, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet unless fired from close range. In effect, rather than making plate armour obsolete, the use of firearms stimulated the development of plate armour into its later stages. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending arquebusiers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 18th century. It was the only way they could be mounted and survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire.
The horse was afforded protection from lances and infantry weapons by steel plate barding. This gave the horse protection and enhanced the visual impression of a mounted knight. Late in the era, elaborate barding was used in parade armour.
#### Later
Gradually, starting in the mid-16th century, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers.
Back and breast plates continued to be used throughout the entire period of the 18th century and through Napoleonic times, in many European heavy cavalry units, until the early 20th century. From their introduction, muskets could pierce plate armour, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire. In Japan, armour continued to be used until the late 19th century, with the last major fighting in which armour was used, this occurred in 1868. Samurai armour had one last short lived use in 1877 during the Satsuma Rebellion.
Though the age of the knight was over, armour continued to be used in many capacities. Soldiers in the American Civil War bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected body armour for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely, some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives, but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their increased weight on long marches, as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.
At the start of World War I, thousands of the French Cuirassiers rode out to engage the German Cavalry. By that period, the shiny metallic cuirass was covered in a dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets, to help mitigate the sunlight being reflected off the surfaces, thereby alerting the enemy of their location. Their armour was only meant for protection against edged weapons such as bayonets, sabres, and lances. Cavalry had to be wary of repeating rifles, machine guns, and artillery, unlike the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to give them some protection.
### Present
Today, ballistic vests, also known as flak jackets, made of ballistic cloth (e.g. kevlar, dyneema, twaron, spectra etc.) and ceramic or metal plates are common among police officers, security guards, corrections officers and some branches of the military.
The US Army has adopted Interceptor body armour, which uses Enhanced Small Arms Protective Inserts (ESAPIs) in the chest, sides, and back of the armour. Each plate is rated to stop a range of ammunition including 3 hits from a 7.62×51 NATO AP round at a range of 10 m. Dragon Skin is another ballistic vest which is currently in testing with mixed results. As of 2019, it has been deemed too heavy, expensive, and unreliable, in comparison to more traditional plates, and it is outdated in protection compared to modern US IOTV armour, and even in testing was deemed a downgrade from the IBA.
The British Armed Forces also have their own armour, known as Osprey. It is rated to the same general equivalent standard as the US counterpart, the Improved Outer Tactical Vest, and now the Soldier Plate Carrier System and Modular Tactical Vest.
The Russian Armed Forces also have armour, known as the 6B43, all the way to 6B45, depending on variant. Their armour runs on the GOST system, which, due to regional conditions, has resulted in a technically higher protective level overall.
<File:Ancient> German armour helmet.jpg\|Medieval German helmet.\|alt=Rusted metal helmet <File:Armors> for Man and Horse, Syrian, Iranian and Turkish, comprehensively about 1450-1550,The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.jpg\|Early Modern horse armour on display at Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, New York.\|alt=Statue of horse and rider in armour <File:Rustning>, Gustav Vasa - Livrustkammaren - 32921.tif\|Plate armour\|alt=Full set of plate metal armour <File:Riot> Policeman in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester.jpg\|Riot police with body protection against physical impact. However, it does not provide very much protection against firearms. \|alt=Uniformed police officer wearing body armour
## Vehicle
The first modern production technology for armour plating was used by navies in the construction of the ironclad warship, reaching its pinnacle of development with the battleship. The first tanks were produced during World War I. Aerial armour has been used to protect pilots and aircraft systems since the First World War.
In modern ground forces\' usage, the meaning of armour has expanded to include the role of troops in combat. After the evolution of armoured warfare, mechanised infantry were mounted in armoured fighting vehicles and replaced light infantry in many situations. In modern armoured warfare, armoured units equipped with tanks and infantry fighting vehicles serve the historic role of heavy cavalry, light cavalry, and dragoons, and belong to the armoured branch of warfare.
### History {#history_1}
#### Ships
The first ironclad battleship, with iron armour over a wooden hull, `{{ship|French ironclad|Gloire||2}}`{=mediawiki}, was launched by the French Navy in 1859 prompting the British Royal Navy to build a counter. The following year they launched `{{HMS|Warrior|1860|6}}`{=mediawiki}, which was twice the size and had iron armour over an iron hull. After the first battle between two ironclads took place in 1862 during the American Civil War, it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the unarmoured line-of-battle ship as the most powerful warship afloat.
Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defence ships, and long-range cruisers. The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden-hulled vessel which carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel-built, turreted battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century. This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns (the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea), more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible.
The rapid pace of change in the ironclad period meant that many ships were obsolete as soon as they were complete, and that naval tactics were in a state of flux. Many ironclads were built to make use of the ram or the torpedo, which a number of naval designers considered the crucial weapons of naval combat. There is no clear end to the ironclad period, but towards the end of the 1890s the term *ironclad* dropped out of use. New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armoured cruisers.
#### Trains
Armoured trains saw use from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, including the American Civil War (1861--1865), the Franco-Prussian War (1870--1871), the First and Second Boer Wars (1880--81 and 1899--1902), the Polish--Soviet War (1919--1921), the First (1914--1918) and Second World Wars (1939--1945) and the First Indochina War (1946--1954). The most intensive use of armoured trains was during the Russian Civil War (1918--1920).
#### Armoured fighting vehicles {#armoured_fighting_vehicles}
Ancient siege engines were usually protected by wooden armour, often covered with wet hides or thin metal to prevent being easily burned.
Medieval war wagons were horse-drawn wagons that were similarly armoured. These contained guns or crossbowmen that could fire through gun-slits.
The first modern armoured fighting vehicles were armoured cars, developed c. 1900. These started as ordinary wheeled motor-cars protected by iron shields, typically mounting a machine gun.
During the First World War, the stalemate of trench warfare during on the Western Front spurred the development of the tank. It was envisioned as an armoured machine that could advance under fire from enemy rifles and machine guns, and respond with its own heavy guns. It used caterpillar tracks to cross ground broken up by shellfire and trenches.
#### Aircraft
With the development of effective anti-aircraft artillery in the period before the Second World War, military pilots, once the \"knights of the air\" during the First World War, became far more vulnerable to ground fire. As a response, armour plating was added to aircraft to protect aircrew and vulnerable areas such as engines and fuel tanks. Self-sealing fuel tanks functioned like armour in that they added protection but also increased weight and cost.
### Present {#present_1}
Tank armour has progressed from the Second World War armour forms, now incorporating not only harder composites, but also reactive armour designed to defeat shaped charges. As a result of this, the main battle tank (MBT) conceived in the Cold War era can survive multiple rocket-propelled grenade strikes with minimal effect on the crew or the operation of the vehicle. The light tanks that were the last descendants of the light cavalry during the Second World War have almost completely disappeared from the world\'s militaries due to increased lethality of the weapons available to the vehicle-mounted infantry.
The armoured personnel carrier (APC) was devised during the First World War. It allows the safe and rapid movement of infantry in a combat zone, minimising casualties and maximising mobility. APCs are fundamentally different from the previously used armoured half-tracks in that they offer a higher level of protection from artillery burst fragments, and greater mobility in more terrain types. The basic APC design was substantially expanded to an infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) when properties of an APC and a light tank were combined in one vehicle.
Naval armour has fundamentally changed from the Second World War doctrine of thicker plating to defend against shells, bombs and torpedoes. Passive defence naval armour is limited to kevlar or steel (either single layer or as spaced armour) protecting particularly vital areas from the effects of nearby impacts. Since ships cannot carry enough armour to completely protect against anti-ship missiles, they depend more on defensive weapons destroying incoming missiles, or causing them to miss by confusing their guidance systems with electronic warfare.
Although the role of the ground attack aircraft significantly diminished after the Korean War, it re-emerged during the Vietnam War, and in the recognition of this, the US Air Force authorised the design and production of what became the A-10 dedicated anti-armour and ground-attack aircraft that first saw action in the Gulf War.
High-voltage transformer fire barriers are often required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters, which form part of large electrical transformers, per [NFPA 850](https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=850). Such fire barriers may be designed to inherently function as armour, or may be passive fire protection materials *augmented by armour*, where care must be taken to ensure that the armour\'s reaction to fire does not cause issues with regards to the fire barrier being armoured to defeat explosions and projectiles in addition to fire, especially since both functions must be provided simultaneously, meaning they must be fire-tested together to provide realistic evidence of fitness for purpose.
Combat drones use little to no vehicular armour as they are not crewed vessels, this results in them being lightweight and small in size.
## Animal armour {#animal_armour}
### Horse armour {#horse_armour}
Body armour for war horses has been used since at least 2000 BC. Cloth, leather, and metal protection covered cavalry horses in ancient civilisations, including ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, and Rome. Some formed heavy cavalry units of armoured horses and riders used to attack infantry and mounted archers. Armour for horses is called *barding* (also spelled *bard* or *barb*) especially when used by European knights.
During the late Middle Ages as armour protection for knights became more effective, their mounts became targets. This vulnerability was exploited by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn in the 14th century, when horses were killed by the infantry, and for the English at the Battle of Crécy in the same century where longbowmen shot horses and the then dismounted French knights were killed by heavy infantry. Barding developed as a response to such events.
Examples of armour for horses could be found as far back as classical antiquity. Cataphracts, with scale armour for both rider and horse, are believed by many historians to have influenced the later European knights, via contact with the Byzantine Empire.
Surviving period examples of barding are rare; however, complete sets are on display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the Wallace Collection in London, the Royal Armouries in Leeds, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Horse armour could be made in whole or in part of cuir bouilli (hardened leather), but surviving examples of this are especially rare.
### Elephant armour {#elephant_armour}
War elephants were first used in ancient times without armour, but armour was introduced because elephants injured by enemy weapons would often flee the battlefield. Elephant armour was often made from hardened leather, which was fitted onto an individual elephant while moist, then dried to create a hardened shell. Alternatively, metal armour pieces were sometimes sewn into heavy cloth. Later lamellar armour (small overlapping metal plates) was introduced. Full plate armour was not typically used due to its expense and the danger of the animal overheating.
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Anton Drexler
|
**Anton Drexler** (13 June 1884 -- 24 February 1942) was a German far-right political agitator for the *Völkisch* movement in the 1920s. He founded the German Workers\' Party (DAP), the pan-German and anti-Semitic antecedent of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). Drexler mentored his successor in the NSDAP, Adolf Hitler, during his early years in politics.
## Early life {#early_life}
Born in Munich, Drexler was a machine-fitter before becoming a railway toolmaker and locksmith in Berlin. He is believed to have been disappointed with his income, and to have played the zither in restaurants to supplement his earnings. Drexler did not serve in the armed forces during World War I because he was deemed physically unfit for service.
## Politics
During World War I, Drexler joined the German Fatherland Party, a short-lived far-right party active during the last phase of the war, which played a significant role in the emergence of the stab-in-the-back myth and the defamation of certain politicians as the \"November Criminals\".
In March 1918, Drexler founded a branch of the Free Workers\' Committee for a Good Peace (*Der Freie Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden*) league. Karl Harrer, a journalist and member of the Thule Society, convinced Drexler and several others to form the Political Workers\' Circle (*Politischer Arbeiter-Zirkel*) in 1918. The members met periodically for discussions about nationalism and antisemitism.
### German Workers\' Party {#german_workers_party}
Together with Harrer, Drexler founded the German Workers\' Party (DAP) in Munich on 5 January 1919. At a DAP meeting in Munich on 12 September 1919, the main speaker was Gottfried Feder, who held a lecture on the subject of \'the breaking of interest slavery\'. When Feder\'s lecture concluded, Adolf Hitler`{{Mdash}}`{=mediawiki}who attended the meeting as part of his assignment from the German Army to watch political agitators`{{Mdash}}`{=mediawiki} got involved in a heated political argument with a visitor, Professor Adalbert Baumann, who questioned the soundness of Feder\'s arguments and in turn spoke in favour of Bavarian separatism. In vehemently attacking the man\'s arguments, Hitler made an impression on the other party members with his oratorical abilities, and according to him, the professor left the hall defeated. Drexler approached Hitler and gave him a copy of his pamphlet *My Political Awakening*. Hitler later claimed the literature reflected the ideals he already held since his own \"political awakening\". Impressed with Hitler, Drexler encouraged him to join the DAP. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party.
Once accepted, Hitler began to make the party more public by drawing people in with his speaking abilities, leading up to his organizing the party\'s biggest meeting yet, which attracted 2,000 people to the Hofbräuhaus in Munich on 24 February 1920. It was in this speech that Hitler, for the first time, enunciated the twenty-five points of the German Worker\'s Party\'s manifesto that he had authored with Drexler and Feder. Through these points, he gave the organisation a foreign policy, including the abrogation of the Treaty of Versailles, a Greater Germany, Eastern expansion, and exclusion of Jews from citizenship. On the same day the party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers\' Party (*Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei*, NSDAP).
Following an intraparty dispute, Hitler angrily tendered his resignation on 11 July 1921. However, Drexler and the party\'s governing committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. So Dietrich Eckart was asked by the Party leadership to speak with Hitler and relay the conditions in which he would agree to return. Hitler announced he would rejoin the party on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, with dictatorial powers and the title of \"*Führer*\", and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed and he rejoined the party as member 3,680. Drexler was thereafter moved to the purely symbolic position of honorary president.
Drexler was also a member of a *völkisch* political club for affluent members of Munich society known as the Thule Society. His membership in the Nazi Party ended when it was temporarily outlawed in 1923 following the Beer Hall Putsch, although Drexler had not taken part in the coup attempt. In 1924, he was elected to the Bavarian state parliament for the Völkisch-Social Bloc party (VSB), in which he served as vice president until 1928. He played no role in the Nazi Party\'s re-founding in February 1925 and rejoined only after Hitler ascended to national power in 1933. In May 1925, he founded a group with other VSB deputies, the *Nationalsozialer Volksbund* (National Social People\'s League), but it was dissolved in 1927--1928. Drexler received the Nazi Party\'s Blood Order in 1934, and was still occasionally used as a propaganda tool until about 1937, but was never allowed any power within the party.
## Death
Drexler died in Munich in February 1942 after a lengthy illness due to alcoholism.
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2,161 |
Artistic License
|
The **Artistic License** is an open-source license used for certain free and open-source software packages, most notably the standard implementation of the Perl programming language and most CPAN modules, which are dual-licensed under the Artistic License and the GNU General Public License (GPL).
## History
### Artistic License 1.0 {#artistic_license_1.0}
The original Artistic License was written by Larry Wall. The name of the license is a reference to the concept of artistic license.
Whether or not the original Artistic License is a free software license is largely unsettled. The Free Software Foundation explicitly called the original Artistic License a non-free license, criticizing it as being \"too vague; some passages are too clever for their own good, and their meaning is not clear\". The FSF recommended that the license not be used on its own, but approved the common AL/GPL dual-licensing approach for Perl projects.
In response to this, Bradley Kuhn, who later worked for the Free Software Foundation, made a minimal redraft to clarify the ambiguous passages. This was released as the **Clarified Artistic License** and was approved by the FSF. It is used by the Paros Proxy, the JavaFBP toolkit and NcFTP.
The terms of the Artistic License 1.0 were at issue in *Jacobsen v. Katzer* in the initial 2009 ruling by the United States District Court for the Northern District of California declared that FOSS-like licenses could only be enforced through contract law rather than through copyright law, in contexts where contract damages would be difficult to establish. On appeal, a federal appellate court \"determined that the terms of the Artistic License are enforceable copyright conditions\". The case was remanded to the District Court, which did not apply the superior court\'s criteria on the grounds that, in the interim, the governing Supreme Court precedent applicable to the case had changed. However, this left undisturbed the finding that a free and open-source license nonetheless has economic value. Jacobsen ultimately prevailed in 2010, and the Case established a new standard making terms and conditions under Artistic License 1.0 enforceable through copyright statutes and relevant precedents.
### Artistic License 2.0 {#artistic_license_2.0}
In response to the Request for Comments (RFC) process for improving the licensing position for Raku, Kuhn\'s draft was extensively rewritten by Roberta Cairney and Allison Randal for readability and legal clarity, with input from the Perl community. This resulted in the **Artistic License 2.0**, which has been approved as both a free software and open source license.
The Artistic license 2.0 is also notable for its excellent license compatibility with other FOSS licenses due to a relicensing clause, a property other licenses like the GPL lack. `{{Blockquote|You may Distribute your Modified Version as Source (either gratis or for a Distributor Fee, and with or without a Compiled form of the Modified Version) [...] provided that you do at least ONE of the following:
[...]
(c) allow anyone who receives a copy of the Modified Version to make the Source form of the Modified Version available to others under
(i) the Original License or
(ii) '''a license''' that permits the licensee to freely copy, modify and redistribute the Modified Version using the same licensing terms that apply to the copy that the licensee received, and requires that the Source form of the Modified Version, and of any works derived from it, be made freely available in that license fees are prohibited but Distributor Fees are allowed.}}`{=mediawiki} It has been adopted by some of the Raku implementations, the Mojolicious framework and the NPM. It is also used by the SNEeSe emulator, which was formerly licensed under the Clarified Artistic License.
The OSI recommends that all developers and projects licensing their products with the Artistic License adopt Artistic License 2.0.
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2,163 |
Aeolus
|
In Greek mythology, **Aiolos**, transcribed as **Aeolus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|iː|ə|l|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Αἴολος* `{{IPA|grc|ǎi̯.olos|}}`{=mediawiki}; *label=\[\[Modern Greek\]\]* `{{IPA|el|ˈe.olos||Ell-Aiolos.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}) refers to three characters. These three are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus Siculus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear that he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here.
- The first Aeolus was a son of Hellen and the eponymous founder of the Aeolian race.
- The second Aeolus was a son of Poseidon, who led a colony to islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea.
- The third Aeolus was a son of Hippotes who is mentioned in the *Odyssey* and the *Aeneid* as the ruler of the winds.
All three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship, especially regarding the second and third Aeolus, is often ambiguous as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers.
Aeolus was also the name of the following minor characters:
- Aeolus, a defender of Thebes in the war of the Seven against Thebes. He was killed by Parthenopaeus.
- Aeolus, a Trojan companion of Aeneas in Italy, where he was killed by Turnus, King of the Rutulians. Aeolus was the father of Clytius and Misenus.
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Autobiography
|
An **autobiography**, sometimes informally called an **autobio**, is a self-written account of one\'s own life, providing a personal narrative that reflects on the author\'s experiences, memories, and insights. This genre allows individuals to share their unique perspectives and stories, offering readers a glimpse into the author\'s personal journey and the historical or cultural context in which they lived.
The term \"autobiography\" was first used in 1797, but the practice of writing about one\'s life dates back to antiquity. Early examples include Saint Augustine\'s *Confessions* (c. 400), which is considered one of the first Western autobiographies. Unlike biographies, which are written by someone else, autobiographies are based on the author\'s memory and personal interpretation of events, making them inherently subjective. This subjectivity can sometimes lead to inaccuracies or embellishments, as the author may recall events differently or choose to present them in a certain light.
Autobiographies can take various forms, including memoirs, spiritual autobiographies, and fictional autobiographies. Memoirs typically focus on specific memories or themes from the author\'s life, rather than providing a comprehensive account. Spiritual autobiographies, such as Augustine\'s *Confessions*, detail the author\'s religious journey and spiritual growth. Fictional autobiographies, on the other hand, are novels written in the first person, presenting a fictional character\'s life as if it were an autobiography.
Throughout history, autobiographies have served different purposes, from self-reflection and justification to historical documentation and personal expression. They have evolved with literary trends and societal changes, reflecting the cultural and historical contexts of their times. Autobiographies remain a popular and accessible form of literature in the 21st century, allowing individuals from all walks of life to share their stories and experiences with a wider audience.
## Definition
The word \"autobiography\" was first used deprecatingly by William Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical *The Monthly Review*, when he suggested the word as a hybrid, but condemned it as \"pedantic\". However, its next recorded use was in its present sense, by Robert Southey in 1809. Despite only being named early in the nineteenth century, first-person autobiographical writing originates in antiquity. Roy Pascal differentiates autobiography from the periodic self-reflective mode of journal or diary writing by noting that \"\[autobiography\] is a review of a life from a particular moment in time, while the diary, however reflective it may be, moves through a series of moments in time\". Autobiography thus takes stock of the autobiographer\'s life from the moment of composition. While biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints, autobiography may be based entirely on the writer\'s memory. The memoir form is closely associated with autobiography but it tends, as Pascal claims, to focus less on the self and more on others during the autobiographer\'s review of their own life.
Autobiographical works are by nature subjective. The inability---or unwillingness---of the author to accurately recall memories has in certain cases resulted in misleading or incorrect information. Some sociologists and psychologists have noted that autobiography offers the author the ability to recreate history.
## Related forms {#related_forms}
### Spiritual autobiography {#spiritual_autobiography}
Spiritual autobiography is an account of an author\'s struggle or journey towards God, followed by conversion a religious conversion, often interrupted by moments of regression. The author re-frames their life as a demonstration of divine intention through encounters with the Divine. The earliest example of a spiritual autobiography is Augustine\'s *Confessions* though the tradition has expanded to include other religious traditions in works such as Mohandas Gandhi\'s *An Autobiography* and Black Elk\'s *Black Elk Speaks*. *Deliverance from Error* by Al-Ghazali is another example. The spiritual autobiography often serves as an endorsement of the writer\'s religion.
### Memoirs
A memoir is slightly different in character from an autobiography. While an autobiography typically focuses on the \"life and times\" of the writer, a memoir has a narrower, more intimate focus on the author\'s memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. One early example is that of Julius Caesar\'s *Commentarii de Bello Gallico*, also known as *Commentaries on the Gallic Wars*. In the work, Caesar describes the battles that took place during the nine years that he spent fighting local armies in the Gallic Wars. His second memoir, *Commentarii de Bello Civili* (or *Commentaries on the Civil War*) is an account of the events that took place between 49 and 48 BC in the civil war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate.
Leonor López de Córdoba (1362--1420) wrote what is supposed to be the first autobiography in Spanish. The English Civil War (1642--1651) provoked a number of examples of this genre, including works by Sir Edmund Ludlow and Sir John Reresby. French examples from the same period include the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (1614--1679) and the Duc de Saint-Simon.
### Fictional autobiography {#fictional_autobiography}
The term \"fictional autobiography\" signifies novels about a fictional character written as though the character were writing their own autobiography, meaning that the character is the first-person narrator and that the novel addresses both internal and external experiences of the character. Daniel Defoe\'s *Moll Flanders* is an early example. Charles Dickens\' *David Copperfield* is another such classic, and J.D. Salinger\'s *The Catcher in the Rye* is a well-known modern example of fictional autobiography. Charlotte Brontë\'s *Jane Eyre* is yet another example of fictional autobiography, as noted on the front page of the original version. The term may also apply to works of fiction purporting to be autobiographies of real characters, e.g., Robert Nye\'s *Memoirs of Lord Byron*.
## History
### The classical period: Apologia, oration, confession {#the_classical_period_apologia_oration_confession}
In antiquity such works were typically entitled *apologia*, purporting to be self-justification rather than self-documentation. The title of John Henry Newman\'s 1864 Christian confessional work *Apologia Pro Vita Sua* refers to this tradition.
The historian Flavius Josephus introduces his autobiography *Josephi Vita* (c. 99) with self-praise, which is followed by a justification of his actions as a Jewish rebel commander of Galilee.
The rhetor Libanius (c. 314--394) framed his life memoir *Oration I* (begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that would not be read aloud in privacy.
Augustine of Hippo (354--430) applied the title *Confessions* to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine\'s was arguably the first Western autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and the latter to gold; Augustine\'s views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology). *Confessions* is considered one of the great masterpieces of western literature.
Peter Abelard\'s 12th-century *Historia Calamitatum* is in the spirit of Augustine\'s *Confessions*, an outstanding autobiographical document of its period.
### Early autobiographies {#early_autobiographies}
In the 15th century, Leonor López de Córdoba, a Spanish noblewoman, wrote her *Memorias*, which may be the first autobiography in Castillian.
Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur, who founded the Mughal dynasty of South Asia kept a journal *Bāburnāma* (Chagatai/*بابر نامہ*; literally: *\"Book of Babur\"* or *\"Letters of Babur\"*) which was written between 1493 and 1529.
One of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500--1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and entitled by him simply *Vita* (Italian: *Life*). He declares at the start: \"No matter what sort he is, everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over forty.\" These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them.
Another autobiography of the period is *De vita propria*, by the Italian mathematician, physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574).
One of the first autobiographies written in an Indian language was *Ardhakathānaka*, written by Banarasidas, who was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. The poetic autobiography *Ardhakathānaka* (The Half Story), was composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around Mathura.In his autobiography, he describes his transition from an unruly youth, to a religious realization by the time the work was composed. The work also is notable for many details of life in Mughal times.
The earliest known autobiography written in English is the *Book of Margery Kempe*, written in 1438. Following in the earlier tradition of a life story told as an act of Christian witness, the book describes Margery Kempe\'s pilgrimages to the Holy Land and Rome, her attempts to negotiate a celibate marriage with her husband, and most of all her religious experiences as a Christian mystic. Extracts from the book were published in the early sixteenth century but the whole text was published for the first time only in 1936.
Possibly the first publicly available autobiography written in English was Captain John Smith\'s autobiography published in 1630 which was regarded by many as not much more than a collection of tall tales told by someone of doubtful veracity. This changed with the publication of Philip Barbour\'s definitive biography in 1964 which, amongst other things, established independent factual basis for many of Smith\'s \"tall tales\", many of which could not have been known by Smith at the time of writing unless he was actually present at the events recounted.
Other notable English autobiographies of the 17th century include those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1643, published 1764) and John Bunyan (*Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners*, 1666).
Jarena Lee (1783--1864) was the first African American woman to have a published biography in the United States.
### 18th and 19th centuries {#th_and_19th_centuries}
Following the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau\'s *Confessions*, a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject\'s emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal\'s autobiographical writings of the 1830s, *The Life of Henry Brulard* and *Memoirs of an Egotist*, are both avowedly influenced by Rousseau. An English example is William Hazlitt\'s *Liber Amoris* (1823), a painful examination of the writer\'s love-life.
With the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation---rather than the exception---that those in the public eye should write about themselves---not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing---far removed from the principles of \"Cellinian\" autobiography.
### 20th and 21st centuries {#th_and_21st_centuries}
From the 17th century onwards, \"scandalous memoirs\" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called \"autobiographies\" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities---and to a lesser extent about politicians---generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their \"autobiographies\". Some sensationalist autobiographies such as James Frey\'s *A Million Little Pieces* have been publicly exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors\' lives.
Autobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible form. *A Fortunate Life* by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary classic. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as *Angela's Ashes* and *The Color of Water*, more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Maggie Nelson\'s book *The Argonauts* is one of the recent autobiographies. Maggie Nelson calls it autotheory---a combination of autobiography and critical theory.
A genre where the \"claim for truth\" overlaps with fictional elements though the work still purports to be autobiographical is autofiction.
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Arcology
|
thumb\|upright=1.3\|Concept design for the NOAH (New Orleans Arcology Habitat) proposal, designed by E. Kevin Schopfer **Arcology**, a portmanteau of \"architecture\" and \"ecology\", is a field of creating architectural design principles for very densely populated and ecologically low-impact human habitats.
The term was coined in 1969 by architect Paolo Soleri, who believed that a completed arcology would provide space for a variety of residential, commercial, and agricultural facilities while minimizing individual human environmental impact. These structures have been largely hypothetical, as no large-scale arcology has yet been built.
The concept has been promoted by various science fiction writers. Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle provided a detailed description of an arcology in their 1981 novel *Oath of Fealty*. William Gibson popularized the term in his seminal 1984 cyberpunk novel *Neuromancer*, where each corporation has its own self-contained city known as an arcology. More recently, authors such as Peter Hamilton in *Neutronium Alchemist* and Paolo Bacigalupi in *The Water Knife* explicitly used arcologies as part of their scenarios. They are often portrayed as self-contained or economically self-sufficient.
## Development
An arcology is distinguished from a merely large building in that it is designed to lessen the impact of human habitation on any given ecosystem. It could be self-sustainable, employing all or most of its own available resources for a comfortable life: power, climate control, food production, air and water conservation and purification, sewage treatment, etc. An arcology is designed to make it possible to supply those items for a large population. An arcology would supply and maintain its own municipal or urban infrastructures in order to operate and connect with other urban environments apart from its own.
Arcologies were proposed in order to reduce human impact on natural resources. Arcology designs might apply conventional building and civil engineering techniques in very large, but practical projects in order to achieve pedestrian economies of scale that have proven, post-automobile, to be difficult to achieve in other ways.
Frank Lloyd Wright proposed an early version called Broadacre City although, in contrast to an arcology, his idea is comparatively two-dimensional and depends on a road network. Wright\'s plan described transportation, agriculture, and commerce systems that would support an economy. Critics said that Wright\'s solution failed to account for population growth, and assumed a more rigid democracy than the US actually has.
Buckminster Fuller proposed the Old Man River\'s City project, a domed city with a capacity of 125,000, as a solution to the housing problems in East St. Louis, Illinois.
Paolo Soleri proposed later solutions, and coined the term \"arcology\". Soleri describes ways of compacting city structures in three dimensions to combat two-dimensional urban sprawl, to economize on transportation and other energy uses. Like Wright, Soleri proposed changes in transportation, agriculture, and commerce. Soleri explored reductions in resource consumption and duplication, land reclamation; he also proposed to eliminate most private transportation. He advocated for greater \"frugality\" and favored greater use of shared social resources, including public transit (and public libraries).
## Similar real-world projects {#similar_real_world_projects}
Arcosanti is an experimental \"arcology prototype\", a demonstration project under construction in central Arizona since 1970. Designed by Paolo Soleri, its primary purpose is to demonstrate Soleri\'s personal designs, his application of principles of arcology to create a pedestrian-friendly urban form.
Many cities in the world have proposed projects adhering to the design principles of the arcology concept, like Tokyo, and Dongtan near Shanghai. The Dongtan project may have collapsed, and it failed to open for the Shanghai World Expo in 2010. The Ihme-Zentrum in Hanover was an attempt to build a \"city within a city\".
McMurdo Station of the United States Antarctic Program and other scientific research stations on Antarctica resemble the popular conception of an arcology as a technologically advanced, relatively self-sufficient human community. The Antarctic research base provides living and entertainment amenities for roughly 3,000 staff who visit each year. Its remoteness and the measures needed to protect its population from the harsh environment give it an insular character. The station is not self-sufficient: The U.S. military delivers 30,000,000 liters (8,000,000 US gal) of fuel and 11 e6lb of supplies and equipment yearly through its Operation Deep Freeze resupply effort, but it is isolated from conventional support networks. Under international treaty, it must avoid damage to the surrounding ecosystem.
Begich Towers operates like a small-scale arcology encompassing nearly all of the population of Whittier, Alaska. The building contains residential housing as well as a police station, grocery, and municipal offices.
The Line was planned as a 170 km long and 200 m wide linear smart city in Saudi Arabia in Neom, Tabuk Province, designed to have no cars, streets or greenhouse gas emissions. The Line is planned to be the first development in Neom, a \$500 billion project. The city\'s plans anticipated a population of 9 million. Excavation work had started along the entire length of the project by October 2022. However, the project was scaled down in 2024 to 2.4 km long, housing 300,000 people.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
Most proposals to build real arcologies have failed due to financial, structural or conceptual shortcomings. Arcologies are therefore found primarily in fictional works.
- In Robert Silverberg\'s *The World Inside*, most of the global population of 75 billion live inside giant skyscrapers, called \"urbmons\", each of which contains hundreds of thousands of people. The urbmons are arranged in \"constellations\". Each urbmon is divided into \"neighborhoods\" of 40 or so floors. All the needs of the inhabitants are provided inside the building --- food is grown outside and brought into the building --- so the idea of going outside is heretical and can be a sign of madness. The book examines human life when the population density is extremely high.
- Another significant example is the 1981 novel *Oath of Fealty* by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle, in which a segment of the population of Los Angeles has moved into an arcology. The plot examines the social changes that result, both inside and outside the arcology. Thus the arcology is not just a plot device but a subject of critique.
- In the city-building video game *SimCity 2000*, self-contained arcologies can be built, reducing the infrastructure needs of the city.
- The isometric, cyberpunk-themed action roleplay game *The Ascent* takes place in a futuristic dystopian version of an arcology on the alien world Veles and prominently uses the structure and its levels to flesh out progression in the game, starting the player in the bottom levels of the sewers with the ultimate goal of reaching the top of the structure to leave the city.
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April 19
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2,197 |
Amstrad CPC
|
The **Amstrad CPC** (short for \"Colour Personal Computer\") is a series of 8-bit home computers produced by Amstrad between 1984 and 1990. It was designed to compete in the mid-1980s home computer market dominated by the Commodore 64 and the ZX Spectrum; it successfully established itself primarily in the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and the German-speaking parts of Europe, and also Canada.
The series spawned a total of six distinct models: The *CPC 464*, *CPC 664*, and *CPC 6128* were highly successful competitors in the European home computer market. The later *464 plus* and *6128 plus*, intended to prolong the system\'s lifecycle with hardware updates, were considerably less successful, as was the attempt to repackage the *plus* hardware into a game console as the *GX4000*.
The CPC models\' hardware is based on the Zilog Z80A CPU, complemented with either 64 or 128 KB of RAM. Their computer-in-a-keyboard design prominently features an integrated storage device, either a compact cassette deck or 3-inch floppy disk drive. The main units were only sold bundled with either a colour, green-screen or monochrome monitor that doubles as the main unit\'s power supply. Additionally, a wide range of first and third-party hardware extensions such as external disk drives, printers, and memory extensions, was available.
The CPC series was pitched against other home computers primarily used to play video games and enjoyed a strong supply of game software. The comparatively low price for a complete computer system with dedicated monitor, its high-resolution monochrome text and graphic capabilities and the possibility to run CP/M software also rendered the system attractive for business users, which was reflected by a wide selection of application software.
During its lifetime, the CPC series sold approximately three million units.
## Models
The philosophy behind the CPC series was twofold, firstly the concept was of an \"all-in-one\", where the computer, keyboard and its data storage device were combined in a single unit and sold with its own dedicated display monitor. Most home computers at that time such as ZX Spectrum series, Commodore 64, and BBC Micro relied on the use of the domestic television set and a separately connected tape recorder or disk drive. In itself, the all-in-one concept was not new, having been seen before on business-oriented machines and the Commodore PET.
Secondly, Amstrad founder Alan Sugar wanted the machine to resemble a \"real computer, similar to what someone would see being used to check them in at the airport for their holidays\", and for the machine to not look like \"a pregnant calculator\" -- in reference presumably to the ZX81 and ZX Spectrum with their low cost, membrane-type keyboards.
### CPC 464 {#cpc_464}
The CPC 464 was one of the most successful computers in Europe and sold more than two million units.
The CPC 464 featured 64 KB RAM and an internal cassette deck. It was introduced in June 1984 in the UK. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 464 were £249.00/DM899.00 with a green screen and £359.00/DM1398.00 with a colour monitor. Following the introduction of the CPC 6128 in late 1985, suggested retail prices for the CPC 464 were cut by £50.00/DM100.00.
In 1990, the 464plus replaced the CPC 464 in the model line-up, and production of the CPC 464 was discontinued.
### CPC 664 {#cpc_664}
The CPC 664 features 64 KB RAM and an internal 3-inch floppy disk drive. It was introduced on 25 April 1985 in the UK. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 664 were £339.00/DM1198.00 with a green screen and £449.00/DM1998.00 with a colour monitor.
After the successful release of the CPC 464, consumers were constantly asking for two improvements: more memory and an internal disk drive. For Amstrad, the latter was easier to realise. At the deliberately low-key introduction of the CPC 664, the machine was positioned not only as the lowest-cost disk system but even the lowest-cost CP/M 2.2 machine. In the Amstrad CPC product range the CPC 664 complemented the CPC 464 which was neither discontinued nor reduced in price.
Compared to the CPC 464, the CPC 664\'s main unit has been significantly redesigned, not only to accommodate the floppy disk drive but also with a redesigned keyboard area. Touted as \"ergonomic\" by Amstrad\'s promotional material, the keyboard is noticeably tilted to the front with MSX-style cursor keys above the numeric keypad. Compared to the CPC 464\'s multicoloured keyboard, the CPC 664\'s keys are kept in a much quieter grey and pale blue colour scheme.
The back of the CPC 664 main unit features the same connectors as the CPC 464, with the exception of an additional 12V power lead. Unlike the CPC 464\'s cassette tape drive that could be powered off the main unit\'s 5V voltage, the CPC 664\'s floppy disk drive requires an additional 12V voltage. This voltage had to be separately supplied by an updated version of the bundled green screen/colour monitor (GT-65 and CTM-644 respectively).
The CPC 664 was only produced for approximately six months. In late 1985, when the CPC 6128 was introduced in Europe, Amstrad decided not to keep three models in the line-up, and production of the CPC 664 was discontinued.
### CPC 6128 {#cpc_6128}
The CPC 6128 features 128 KB RAM and an internal 3-inch floppy disk drive. Aside from various hardware and firmware improvements, one of the CPC 6128\'s most prominent features is the compatibility with the CP/M+ operating system that rendered it attractive for business uses.
The CPC 6128 was released on 13 June 1985 and initially only sold in the US. Imported and distributed by Indescomp, Inc. of Chicago, it was the first Amstrad product to be sold in the United States, a market that at the time was traditionally hostile towards European computer manufacturers. Two months later, on 15 August 1985, it arrived in Europe and replaced the CPC 664 in the CPC model line-up. Initial suggested retail prices for the CPC 6128 were US\$699.00/£299.00/DM1598.00 with a green screen and US\$799.00/£399.00/DM2098.00 with a colour monitor.
In 1990, the 6128plus replaced the CPC 6128 in the model line-up, and production of the CPC 6128 was discontinued.
### The *plus range* {#the_plus_range}
In 1990, confronted with a changing home computer market, Amstrad decided to refresh the CPC model range by introducing a new range variantly labelled *plus* or *PLUS*, *1990*, or *CPC+ range*. The main goals were numerous enhancements to the existing CPC hardware platform, to restyle the casework to provide a contemporary appearance, and to add native support of cartridge media. The new model palette includes three variants, the *464plus* and *6128plus* computers and the *GX4000* video game console. The \"CPC\" abbreviation was dropped from the model names.
The redesign significantly enhanced the CPC hardware, mainly to rectify its previous shortcomings as a gaming platform. The redesigned video hardware allows for 16 hardware sprites and soft scrolling, with a colour palette extended from a maximum of 16 colours (plus separately definable border) at one time from a choice of 27, increased to a maximum of 31 (16 for background and 15 for hardware sprites) out of 4096. The enhanced sound hardware offers automatic DMA transfer, allowing more complex sound effects with a significantly reduced processor overhead. Other hardware enhancements include the support of analogue joysticks, 8-bit printers, and ROM cartridges up to 4 Mbits.
The new range of models was intended to be completely backwards compatible with the original CPC models. Its enhanced features are only available after a deliberately obscure unlocking mechanism has been triggered, thus preventing existing CPC software from accidentally invoking them.
Despite the significant hardware enhancements, many viewed it as outdated, being based on an 8-bit CPU, and it failed to attract both customers and software producers who were moving towards systems such as the Amiga and Mega Drive which was launched a few short months after the plus range. The plus range was a commercial failure, and production was discontinued shortly after its introduction in 1990.
#### 464 plus, 6128 plus {#plus_6128_plus}
The *464 plus* and *6128 plus* models were intended as \"more sophisticated and stylish\" replacements of the CPC 464 and CPC 6128. Based on the redesigned plus hardware platform, they share the same base characteristics as their predecessors: The 464 plus is equipped with 64 KB RAM and a cassette tape drive, the 6128 plus features 128 KB RAM and a 3\" floppy disk drive. Both models share a common case layout with a keyboard taken over from the CPC 6128 model, and the respective mass storage drive inserted in a case breakout.
In order to simplify the EMC screening process, the edge connectors of the previous models have been replaced with micro-ribbon connectors as previously used on the German Schneider CPC 6128. As a result, a wide range of extensions for the original CPC range are connector-incompatible with the 464 plus and 6128 plus. In addition, the 6128plus does not have a tape socket for an external tape drive.
The plus range is not equipped with an on-board ROM, and thus the 464 plus and the 6128 plus do not contain a firmware. Instead, Amstrad provided the firmware for both models via the ROM extension facility, contained on the included *Burnin\' Rubber and Locomotive BASIC* cartridge. This resulted in reduced hardware localization cost (only some select key caps and case labels had to be localized) with the added benefit of a rudimentary copy protection mechanism (without a firmware present, the machine itself could not copy a game cartridge\'s content). As the enhanced *V4* firmware\'s structural differences causes problems with some CPC software directly calling firmware functions by their memory addresses, Amstrad separately sold a cartridge containing the original CPC 6128\'s *V3* firmware.
Both the 464 plus and the 6128 plus were introduced to the public in September 1990. Initial suggested retail prices were `{{GBP|229}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{currency|1990|code=FRF}}`{=mediawiki} with a monochrome monitor and `{{GBP|329}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{currency|2990|code=FRF}}`{=mediawiki} with a colour monitor for the 464 plus, and `{{GBP|329}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{currency|2990|code=FRF}}`{=mediawiki} with a monochrome monitor and `{{GBP|429}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{currency|3990|code=FRF}}`{=mediawiki} with a colour monitor for the 6128plus.
#### GX4000
*Main article: Amstrad GX4000*
Developed as part of the *plus range*, the GX4000 was Amstrad\'s short-lived attempt to enter the video game consoles market. Sharing the plus range\'s enhanced hardware characteristics, it represents the bare minimum variant of the range without a keyboard or support for mass storage devices. It came bundled with 2 paddle controllers and the racing game *Burnin\' Rubber*.
### Special models and clones {#special_models_and_clones}
#### CPC 472 {#cpc_472}
During the August holidays of 1985, Spain briefly introduced an import tax of 15 000 pesetas ({{€\|90.15}}) on computers containing 64 KB or less of RAM (Royal Decree 1215/1985 and 1558/1985), and a new law (Royal Decree 1250/1985) mandated that all computers sold in Spain must have a Spanish keyboard. To circumvent this, Amstrad\'s Spanish distributor *Indescomp* (later to become *Amstrad Spain*) created and distributed the *CPC 472*, a modified version of the CPC 464. Its main differences are a small additional daughter board containing a CPC 664 ROM chip and an 8 KB memory chip, and a keyboard with a ñ key (although some of them were temporarily manufactured without the ñ key). The sole purpose of the 8 KB memory chip (which is not electrically connected to the machine, so consequently rendered unusable) is to increase the machine\'s total memory specs to 72 KB in order to circumvent the import tax. Some months later, Spain joined the European Communities by the Treaty of Accession 1985 and the import tax was suppressed, so Amstrad added the ñ key for the 464 and production of the CPC 472 was discontinued.`{{better source needed|date=September 2020}}`{=mediawiki}
#### KC compact {#kc_compact}
The *`{{Interlanguage link multi|KC compact|de}}`{=mediawiki}* (\"*Kleincomputer*\" - which means \"small computer\" - being a rather literal German translation of the English \"microcomputer\") is a clone of the Amstrad CPC built by East Germany\'s **VEB\]\] Mikroelektronik Mühlhausen**, part of **VEB \[\[Kombinat Mikroelektronik Erfurt\]\]**, in October 1989. Although the machine included various substitutes and emulations of an Amstrad CPC\'s hardware, the machine is largely compatible with Amstrad CPC software. It is equipped with 64 KB of memory and a CPC 6128\'s firmware customized to the modified hardware, including a copy of Locomotive BASIC 1.1 modified in the startup banner only. The expansion port is a K 1520 bus slot. The KC compact is the last 8-bit computer introduced in East Germany. Due to the German reunification happening at the time of the release, only a very small number of systems were sold. The KC compact can be emulated by free software *JKCEMU*.
#### Aleste 520EX {#aleste_520ex}
In 1993, Omsk, Russia based company Patisonic released the Aleste 520EX, a computer highly compatible with the Amstrad CPC 6128. It could also be switched into an MSX mode. An expansion board named *Magic Sound* allowed to play Scream Tracker files.
## Reception
*Your Computer* concluded that the CPC 464 had \"Superior graphics and sound, an excellent Basic coupled with a flexible operating system\" and that Amstrad\'s target sales of 200,000 by the end of 1984 were realistic.
A *BYTE* columnist in January 1985 called the CPC 464 \"the closest yet to filling\" his criteria for a useful home computer, including good keyboard, 80-column text, inexpensive disk drive, and support for a mainstream operating system like CP/M.
## Hardware
### Processor
The entire CPC series is based on the Zilog Z80; a processor, clocked at 4 MHz. In order to avoid the CPU and the video logic simultaneously accessing the shared main memory and causing video corruption (\"snowing\"), CPU memory access is constrained to occur on microsecond boundaries. This effectively pads every machine cycle to four clock cycles, causing a minor loss of processing power and resulting in what Amstrad estimated to be an \"effective clock rate\" of \"approximately 3.3 MHz\".
### Memory
Amstrad CPCs are equipped with either 64 (CPC 464, CPC 664, 464plus, GX4000) or 128 (CPC 6128, 6128plus) KB of RAM. This base memory can be extended by up to 512 KB using memory expansions sold by third-party manufacturers, and by up to 4096 KB using experimental methods developed by hardware enthusiasts. Because the Z80 processor is only able to directly address 64 KB of memory, additional memory from the 128 KB models and memory expansions is made available using bank switching.
### Video
Underlying a CPC\'s video output is the unusual pairing of a CRTC (Motorola 6845 or compatible) with a custom-designed gate array to generate a pixel display output. CPC 6128s later in production as well as the models from the plus range integrate both the CRTC and the gate array\'s functions with the system\'s ASIC.
Three built-in display resolutions are available: 160×200 pixels with 16 colours (\"Mode 0\", 20 text columns), 320×200 pixels with 4 colours (\"Mode 1\", 40 text columns), and 640×200 pixels with 2 colours (\"Mode 2\", 80 text columns). Increased screen size can be achieved by reprogramming the CRTC.
The original CPC video hardware supports a colour palette of 27 colours, generated from RGB colour space with each colour component assigned as either off, half on, or on (3 level RGB palette). The plus range extended the palette to 4096 colours, also generated from RGB with 4 bits each for red, green and blue (12-bit RGB).
With the exception of the GX4000, all CPC models lack an RF television or composite video output and instead shipped with a 6-pin RGB DIN connector, also used by Acorn computers, to connect the supplied Amstrad monitor. This connector delivers a 1v p-p analogue RGB with a 50 Hz composite sync signal that, if wired correctly, can drive a 50 Hz SCART television. External adapters for RF television were available as a first-party hardware accessory.
### Audio
The CPC uses the General Instrument AY-3-8912 sound chip, providing three channels, each configurable to generate square waves, white noise or both. A small array of hardware volume envelopes are available.
Output is provided in mono by a small (4 cm) built-in loudspeaker with volume control, driven by an internal amplifier. Stereo output is provided through a `{{nowrap|3.5 mm}}`{=mediawiki} headphones jack.
It is possible to play back digital sound samples at a resolution of approximately 5-bit by sending a stream of values to the sound chip. This technique is very processor-intensive and hard to combine with any other processing. Examples are the title screens or other non-playable scenes of games like *Chase H.Q.*, *Meltdown*, and *RoboCop*. The later Plus models incorporated a DMA engine in order to offload this processing.
### Floppy disk drive {#floppy_disk_drive}
Amstrad uses Matsushita\'s 3\" floppy disk drive \[ref: CPCWiki\], which was compatible with Hitachi\'s existing 3\" floppy disk format. The chosen drive (built-in for later models) is a single-sided 40-track unit that requires the user to remove and flip the disk to access the other side. Each side has its own independent write-protect switch. The sides are termed \"A\" and \"B\", with each one commonly formatted to 180 KB (in AMSDOS format, comprising 2 KB directory and 178 KB storage) for a total of 360 KB per disk.
The interface with the drives is an NEC 765 FDC, used for the same purpose in the IBM PC/XT, PC/AT and PS/2 machines. Its features are not fully used in order to cut costs, namely DMA transfers and support for single density disks; they were formatted as double density using modified frequency modulation.
Discs were shipped in a paper sleeve or a hard plastic case resembling a compact disc \"jewel\" case. The casing is thicker and more rigid than that of 3.5 inch diskettes, and designed to be mailed without any additional packaging. A sliding metal cover to protect the media surface is internal to the casing and latched, unlike the simple external sliding cover of Sony\'s version. They were significantly more expensive than both 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch alternatives. This, combined with their low nominal capacities and their essentially proprietary nature, led to the format being discontinued shortly after the CPC itself was discontinued.
Apart from Amstrad\'s other 3-inch machines (the PCW and the ZX Spectrum +3), the few other computer systems to use them included the Sega SF-7000 and CP/M systems such as the Tatung Einstein and Osborne machines. They also found use on embedded systems.
The Shugart-standard interface means that Amstrad CPC machines are able to use standard 3\", 3½\" or 5¼\" drives as their second drive. Programs such as ROMDOS and ParaDOS extend the standard AMSDOS system to provide support for double-sided, 80-track formats, enabling up to 800 KB to be stored on a single disk.
The 3-inch disks themselves are usually known as \"discs\" on the CPC, following the spelling on the machine\'s plastic casing and conventional British English spelling.
### Expansion
The hardware and firmware was designed to be able to access software provided on external ROMs. Each ROM has to be a 16 KB block and is switched in and out of the memory space shared with the video RAM. The Amstrad firmware is deliberately designed so that new software could be easily accessed from these ROMs. Popular applications were marketed on ROM, particularly word processing and programming utility software (examples are Protext and Brunword of the former, and the MAXAM assembler of the latter type).
Such extra ROM chips do not plug directly into the CPC itself, but into extra plug-in \"rom boxes\" which contain sockets for the ROM chips and a minimal amount of decoding circuitry for the main machine to be able to switch between them. These boxes were either marketed commercially or could be built by competent hobbyists and they attached to the main expansion port at the back of the machine. Software on ROM loads much faster than from disc or tape and the machine\'s boot-up sequence was designed to evaluate ROMs it found and optionally hand over control of the machine to them. This allows significant customisation of the functionality of the machine, something that enthusiasts exploited for various purposes. However, the typical users would probably not be aware of this added ROM functionality unless they read the CPC press, as it is not described in the user manual and was hardly ever mentioned in marketing literature. It is, however, documented in the official Amstrad firmware manual.
The machines also feature a 9-pin Atari joystick port that will either directly take one joystick, or two joysticks by use of a splitter cable.
## Peripherals
### RS232 serial adapters {#rs232_serial_adapters}
Amstrad issued two RS-232-C D25 serial interfaces, attached to the expansion connector on the rear of the machine, with a through-connector for the CPC 464 disk drive or other peripherals.
The original interface came with a *Book of Spells* for facilitating data transfer between other systems using a proprietary protocol in the device\'s own ROM, as well as terminal software to connect to British Telecom\'s Prestel service. A separate version of the ROM was created for the U.S. market due to the use of the commands \"\|SUCK\" and \"\|BLOW\", which were considered unacceptable there.
Software and hardware limitations in this interface led to its replacement with an Amstrad-branded version of a compatible alternative by Pace. Serial interfaces were also available from third-party vendors such as KDS Electronics and Cirkit.
## Software
### BASIC and operating system {#basic_and_operating_system}
Like most home computers at the time, the CPC has its OS and a BASIC interpreter built in as ROM. It uses Locomotive BASIC - an improved version of Locomotive Software\'s Z80 BASIC for the BBC Micro co-processor board. It is particularly notable for providing easy access to the machine\'s video and audio resources in contrast to the POKE commands required on generic Microsoft implementations. Other unusual features include timed event handling with the AFTER and EVERY commands, and text-based windowing.
### CP/M
Digital Research\'s CP/M operating system was supplied with the 664 and 6128 disk-based systems, and the DDI-1 disk expansion unit for the 464. 64k machines shipped with CP/M 2.2 alone, while the 128k machines also include CP/M 3.1. The compact CP/M 2.2 implementation is largely stored on the boot sectors of a 3\" disk in what was called \"System format\"; typing \|CPM from Locomotive BASIC would load code from these sectors, making it a popular choice for custom game loading routines. The CP/M 3.1 implementation is largely in a separate file which is in turn loaded from the boot sector. Much public domain CP/M software was made available for the CPC, from word-processors such as VDE to complete bulletin board systems such as ROS.
### Other languages {#other_languages}
Although it was possible to obtain compilers for Locomotive BASIC, C and Pascal, the majority of the CPC\'s software was written in native Z80 assembly language. Popular assemblers were Hisoft\'s Devpac, Arnor\'s Maxam, and (in France) DAMS. Disk-based CPC (not Plus) systems shipped with an interpreter for the educational language LOGO, booted from CP/M 2.2 but largely CPC-specific with much code resident in the AMSDOS ROM; 6128 machines also include a CP/M 3.1, non-ROM version. A C compiler was also written and made available for the European market through Tandy Europe, by Micro Business products.
### *Roland*
In an attempt to give the CPC a recognisable mascot, a number of games by Amstrad\'s in-house software publisher Amsoft have been tagged with the *Roland* name. However, as the games had not been designed around the Roland character and only had the branding added later, the character design varies immensely, from a spiky-haired blonde teenager (*Roland Goes Digging*) to a white cube with legs (*Roland Goes Square Bashing*) or a mutant flea (*Roland in the Caves*). The only two games with similar gameplay and main character design are *Roland in Time* and its sequel *Roland in Space*. The Roland character was named after Roland Perry, one of the lead designers of the original CPC range.
## Schneider Computer Division {#schneider_computer_division}
In order to market its computers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland where Amstrad did not have any distribution structures, Amstrad entered a partnership with *Schneider Rundfunkwerke AG*, a German company that - very much like Amstrad itself - was previously only known for value-priced audio products. In 1984, Schneider\'s *Schneider Computer Division* daughter company was created specifically for the task, and the complete Amstrad CPC line-up was branded and sold as *Schneider CPC*.
Although they are based on the same hardware, the Schneider CPC models differ from the Amstrad CPC models in several details. Most prominently, the Schneider CPC 464 and CPC 664 keyboards featured grey instead of coloured keys, but still in the original British keyboard layout. To achieve a German \"QWERTZ\" keyboard layout, Schneider marketed a small software program to reassign the keys as well as sticker labels for the keys. In order to conform with stricter German EMC regulations, the complete Schneider CPC line-up is equipped with an internal metal shielding. For the same reason, the Schneider CPC 6128 features micro ribbon type connectors instead of edge connectors. Both the greyscale keyboard and the micro ribbon connectors found their way up into the design of later Amstrad CPC models.
In 1988, after Schneider refused to market Amstrad\'s AT-compatible computer line, the cooperation ended. Schneider went on to sell the remaining stock of Schneider CPC models and used their now well-established market position to introduce its own PC designs. With the formation of its German daughter company *Amstrad GmbH* to distribute its product lines including the CPC 464 and CPC 6128, Amstrad attempted but ultimately failed to establish their own brand in the German-speaking parts of Europe.
## Community
The Amstrad CPC enjoyed a strong and long lifetime, mainly due to the machines use for businesses as well as gaming. Dedicated programmers continued working on the CPC range, even producing graphical user interface (GUI) operating systems such as SymbOS. Internet sites devoted to the CPC have appeared from around the world featuring forums, news, hardware, software, programming and games. CPC Magazines appeared during the 1980s including publications in countries such as Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Australia, and Greece. Titles included the official Amstrad Computer User publication, as well as independent titles like *Amstrad Action*, *Amtix!*, *Computing with the Amstrad CPC*, *CPC Attack*, Australia\'s *The Amstrad User*, France\'s *Amstrad Cent Pour Cent* and *Amstar*. Following the CPC\'s end of production, Amstrad gave permission for the CPC ROMs to be distributed freely as long as the copyright message is not changed and that it is acknowledged that Amstrad still holds copyright, giving emulator authors the possibility to ship the CPC firmware with their programs.
## Influence on other Amstrad machines {#influence_on_other_amstrad_machines}
Amstrad followed their success with the CPC 464 by launching the Amstrad PCW word-processor range, another Z80-based machine with a 3\" disk drive and software by Locomotive Software. The PCW was originally developed to be partly compatible with an improved version of the CPC (*ANT*, or Arnold Number Two - the CPC\'s development codename was Arnold). However, Amstrad decided to focus on the PCW, and the ANT project never came to market.
On 7 April 1986, Amstrad announced it had bought from Sinclair Research \"\...the worldwide rights to sell and manufacture all existing and future Sinclair computers and computer products, together with the Sinclair brand name and those intellectual property rights where they relate to computers and computer-related products.\" which included the ZX Spectrum, for £5 million. This included Sinclair\'s unsold stock of Sinclair QLs and Spectrums. Amstrad made more than £5 million on selling these surplus machines alone. Amstrad launched two new variants of the Spectrum: the ZX Spectrum +2, based on the ZX Spectrum 128, with a built-in tape drive (like the CPC 464) and, the following year, the ZX Spectrum +3, with a built-in floppy disk drive (similar to the CPC 664 and 6128), taking the 3\" discs that Amstrad CPC machines used.
## Production Timeline {#production_timeline}
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` id:CPC_6128 value:red legend:CPC_6128`\
` id:Lines value:black legend:Vertical_lines_are_Product_Announcements`\
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| 2025-08-01T00:00:00 |
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Aage Bohr
|
**Aage Niels Bohr** (`{{IPA|da|ˈɔːwə ˈne̝ls ˈpoɐ̯ˀ|lang|Da-Aage Niels Bohr.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; 19 June 1922 -- 8 September 2009) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Roy Mottelson and James Rainwater \"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection\". His father was Niels Bohr.
Starting from Rainwater\'s concept of an irregular-shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus, Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments.
Since his father, Niels Bohr, had won the prize in 1922, he and his father are one of the six pairs of fathers and sons who have both won the Nobel Prize and one of the four pairs who have both won the Nobel Prize in Physics.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Bohr was born in Copenhagen on 19 June 1922, the fourth of six sons of the physicist Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Bohr (née Nørlund). His oldest brother, Christian, died in a boating accident in 1934, and his youngest, Harald, was severely disabled and placed away from the home in Copenhagen at the age of four. He would later die from childhood meningitis. Of the others, Hans became a physician; Erik, a chemical engineer; and Ernest, a lawyer and Olympic athlete who played field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London. The family lived at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, where he grew up surrounded by physicists who were working with his father, such as Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, Yoshio Nishina, Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg. In 1932, the family moved to the Carlsberg Æresbolig, a mansion donated by Carl Jacobsen, the heir to Carlsberg breweries, to be used as an honorary residence by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science, literature, or the arts.
Bohr went to high school at Sortedam Gymnasium in Copenhagen. In 1940, shortly after the German occupation of Denmark in April, he entered the University of Copenhagen, where he studied physics. He assisted his father, helping draft correspondence and articles related to epistemology and physics. In September 1943, word reached his family that the Nazis considered them to be Jewish, because Bohr\'s grandmother, Ellen Adler Bohr, had been Jewish, and that they therefore were in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped the family escape by sea to Sweden. Bohr arrived there in October 1943, and then flew to Britain on a de Havilland Mosquito operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation. The Mosquitoes were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft\'s bomb bay.
On arrival in London, Bohr rejoined his father, who had flown to Britain the week before. He officially became a junior researcher at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, but actually served as personal assistant and secretary to his father. The two worked on Tube Alloys, the British atomic bomb project. On 30 December 1943, they made the first of a number of visits to the United States, where his father was a consultant to the Manhattan Project. Due to his father\'s fame, they were given false names; Bohr became James Baker, and his father, Nicholas Baker. In 1945, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, J. Robert Oppenheimer, asked them to review the design of the modulated neutron initiator. They reported that it would work. That they had reached this conclusion put Enrico Fermi\'s concerns about the viability of the design to rest. The initiators performed flawlessly in the bombs used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.
## Career
In August 1945, with the war ended, Bohr returned to Denmark, where he resumed his university education, graduating with a master\'s degree in 1946, with a thesis concerned with some aspects of atomic stopping power problems. In early 1948, Bohr became a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. While paying a visit to Columbia University, he met Isidor Isaac Rabi, who sparked in him an interest in recent discoveries related to the hyperfine structure of deuterium. This led to Bohr becoming a visiting fellow at Columbia from January 1949 to August 1950. While in the United States, Bohr married Marietta Soffer on 11 March 1950. They had three children: Vilhelm, Tomas and Margrethe.
By the late 1940s it was known that the properties of atomic nuclei could not be explained by then-current models such as the liquid drop model developed by Niels Bohr amongst others. The shell model, developed in 1949 by Maria Goeppert Mayer and others, allowed some additional features to be explained, in particular the so-called magic numbers. However, there were also properties that could not be explained, including the non-spherical distribution of charge in certain nuclei. In a 1950 paper, James Rainwater of Columbia University suggested a variant of the drop model of the nucleus that could explain a non-spherical charge distribution. Rainwater\'s model postulated a nucleus like a balloon with balls inside that distort the surface as they move about. He discussed the idea with Bohr, who was visiting Columbia at the time, and had independently conceived the same idea, and had, about a month after Rainwater\'s submission, submitted for publication a paper that discussed the same problem, but along more general lines. Bohr imagined a rotating, irregular-shaped nucleus with a form of surface tension. Bohr developed the idea further, in 1951 publishing a paper that comprehensively treated the relationship between oscillations of the surface of the nucleus and the movement of the individual nucleons.
Upon his return to Copenhagen in 1950, Bohr began working with Ben Roy Mottelson to compare the theoretical work with experimental data. In three papers, that were published in 1952 and 1953, Bohr and Mottelson demonstrated close agreement between theory and experiment; for example, showing that the energy levels of certain nuclei could be described by a rotation spectrum. They were thereby able to reconcile the shell model with Rainwater\'s concept. This work stimulated many new theoretical and experimental studies. Bohr, Mottelson and Rainwater were jointly awarded the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection\". Because his father had been awarded the prize in 1922, Bohr became one of only four pairs of fathers and sons to win the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Only after doing his Nobel Prize-winning research did Bohr receive his doctorate from the University of Copenhagen, in 1954, writing his thesis on \"Rotational States of Atomic Nuclei\". Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1956, and, following his father\'s death in 1962, succeeded him as director of the Niels Bohr Institute, a position he held until 1970. He remained active there until he retired in 1992. He was also a member of the board of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics from its inception in 1957, and was its director from 1975 to 1981. In addition to the Nobel Prize, he won the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics in 1960, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1969, H. C. Ørsted Medal in 1970, Rutherford Medal and Prize in 1972, John Price Wetherill Medal in 1974, and the Ole Rømer medal in 1976. Bohr and Mottelson continued to work together, publishing a two-volume monograph, *Nuclear Structure*. The first volume, *Single-Particle Motion,* appeared in 1969; the second, *Nuclear Deformations,* in 1975.
In 1972 Bohr was awarded an honorary degree, doctor philos. honoris causa, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology. He was a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters from 1980. Bohr was also an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the United States National Academy of Sciences.
In 1981, Bohr became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.
Bohr\'s wife Marietta died on 2 October 1978. In 1981, he married Bente Scharff Meyer (1926--2011). His son, Tomas Bohr, is a professor of physics at the Technical University of Denmark, working in the area of fluid dynamics. Aage Bohr died in Copenhagen on 9 September 2009. He was survived by his second wife and children.
Bohr\'s Nobel Prize medal was sold at auction in November 2011. It was subsequently sold at auction in April 2019 for \$90,000.
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Analytic geometry
|
In mathematics, **analytic geometry**, also known as **coordinate geometry** or **Cartesian geometry**, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system. This contrasts with synthetic geometry.
Analytic geometry is used in physics and engineering, and also in aviation, rocketry, space science, and spaceflight. It is the foundation of most modern fields of geometry, including algebraic, differential, discrete and computational geometry.
Usually the Cartesian coordinate system is applied to manipulate equations for planes, straight lines, and circles, often in two and sometimes three dimensions. Geometrically, one studies the Euclidean plane (two dimensions) and Euclidean space. As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining and representing geometric shapes in a numerical way and extracting numerical information from shapes\' numerical definitions and representations. That the algebra of the real numbers can be employed to yield results about the linear continuum of geometry relies on the Cantor--Dedekind axiom.
## History
### Ancient Greece {#ancient_greece}
The Greek mathematician Menaechmus solved problems and proved theorems by using a method that had a strong resemblance to the use of coordinates and it has sometimes been maintained that he had introduced analytic geometry.
Apollonius of Perga, in *On Determinate Section*, dealt with problems in a manner that may be called an analytic geometry of one dimension; with the question of finding points on a line that were in a ratio to the others. Apollonius in the *Conics* further developed a method that is so similar to analytic geometry that his work is sometimes thought to have anticipated the work of Descartes by some 1800 years. His application of reference lines, a diameter and a tangent is essentially no different from our modern use of a coordinate frame, where the distances measured along the diameter from the point of tangency are the abscissas, and the segments parallel to the tangent and intercepted between the axis and the curve are the ordinates. He further developed relations between the abscissas and the corresponding ordinates that are equivalent to rhetorical equations (expressed in words) of curves. However, although Apollonius came close to developing analytic geometry, he did not manage to do so since he did not take into account negative magnitudes and in every case the coordinate system was superimposed upon a given curve *a posteriori* instead of *a priori*. That is, equations were determined by curves, but curves were not determined by equations. Coordinates, variables, and equations were subsidiary notions applied to a specific geometric situation.
### Persia
The 11th-century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra and was moving in the right direction when he helped close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra with his geometric solution of the general cubic equations, but the decisive step came later with Descartes. Omar Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations of algebraic geometry, and his book *Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra* (1070), which laid down the principles of analytic geometry, is part of the body of Persian mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. Because of his thoroughgoing geometrical approach to algebraic equations, Khayyam can be considered a precursor to Descartes in the invention of analytic geometry.
### Western Europe {#western_europe}
Analytic geometry was independently invented by René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat, although Descartes is sometimes given sole credit. *Cartesian geometry*, the alternative term used for analytic geometry, is named after Descartes.
Descartes made significant progress with the methods in an essay titled *La Géométrie (Geometry)*, one of the three accompanying essays (appendices) published in 1637 together with his *Discourse on the Method for Rightly Directing One\'s Reason and Searching for Truth in the Sciences*, commonly referred to as *Discourse on Method*. *La Geometrie*, written in his native French tongue, and its philosophical principles, provided a foundation for calculus in Europe. Initially the work was not well received, due, in part, to the many gaps in arguments and complicated equations. Only after the translation into Latin and the addition of commentary by van Schooten in 1649 (and further work thereafter) did Descartes\'s masterpiece receive due recognition.
Pierre de Fermat also pioneered the development of analytic geometry. Although not published in his lifetime, a manuscript form of *Ad locos planos et solidos isagoge* (Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci) was circulating in Paris in 1637, just prior to the publication of Descartes\' *Discourse*. Clearly written and well received, the *Introduction* also laid the groundwork for analytical geometry. The key difference between Fermat\'s and Descartes\' treatments is a matter of viewpoint: Fermat always started with an algebraic equation and then described the geometric curve that satisfied it, whereas Descartes started with geometric curves and produced their equations as one of several properties of the curves. As a consequence of this approach, Descartes had to deal with more complicated equations and he had to develop the methods to work with polynomial equations of higher degree. It was Leonhard Euler who first applied the coordinate method in a systematic study of space curves and surfaces.
## Coordinates
In analytic geometry, the plane is given a coordinate system, by which every point has a pair of real number coordinates. Similarly, Euclidean space is given coordinates where every point has three coordinates. The value of the coordinates depends on the choice of the initial point of origin. There are a variety of coordinate systems used, but the most common are the following:
### Cartesian coordinates (in a plane or space) {#cartesian_coordinates_in_a_plane_or_space}
The most common coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, where each point has an *x*-coordinate representing its horizontal position, and a *y*-coordinate representing its vertical position. These are typically written as an ordered pair (*x*, *y*). This system can also be used for three-dimensional geometry, where every point in Euclidean space is represented by an ordered triple of coordinates (*x*, *y*, *z*).
### Polar coordinates (in a plane) {#polar_coordinates_in_a_plane}
In polar coordinates, every point of the plane is represented by its distance *r* from the origin and its angle *θ*, with *θ* normally measured counterclockwise from the positive *x*-axis. Using this notation, points are typically written as an ordered pair (*r*, *θ*). One may transform back and forth between two-dimensional Cartesian and polar coordinates by using these formulae: $x = r\, \cos\theta,\, y = r\, \sin\theta; \, r = \sqrt{x^2+y^2},\, \theta = \arctan(y/x).$ This system may be generalized to three-dimensional space through the use of cylindrical or spherical coordinates.
### Cylindrical coordinates (in a space) {#cylindrical_coordinates_in_a_space}
In cylindrical coordinates, every point of space is represented by its height *z*, its radius *r* from the *z*-axis and the angle *θ* its projection on the *xy*-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis.
### Spherical coordinates (in a space) {#spherical_coordinates_in_a_space}
In spherical coordinates, every point in space is represented by its distance *ρ* from the origin, the angle *θ* its projection on the *xy*-plane makes with respect to the horizontal axis, and the angle *φ* that it makes with respect to the *z*-axis. The names of the angles are often reversed in physics.
## Equations and curves {#equations_and_curves}
In analytic geometry, any equation involving the coordinates specifies a subset of the plane, namely the solution set for the equation, or locus. For example, the equation *y* = *x* corresponds to the set of all the points on the plane whose *x*-coordinate and *y*-coordinate are equal. These points form a line, and *y* = *x* is said to be the equation for this line. In general, linear equations involving *x* and *y* specify lines, quadratic equations specify conic sections, and more complicated equations describe more complicated figures.
Usually, a single equation corresponds to a curve on the plane. This is not always the case: the trivial equation *x* = *x* specifies the entire plane, and the equation *x*^2^ + *y*^2^ = 0 specifies only the single point (0, 0). In three dimensions, a single equation usually gives a surface, and a curve must be specified as the intersection of two surfaces (see below), or as a system of parametric equations. The equation *x*^2^ + *y*^2^ = *r*^2^ is the equation for any circle centered at the origin (0, 0) with a radius of r.
### Lines and planes {#lines_and_planes}
Lines in a Cartesian plane, or more generally, in affine coordinates, can be described algebraically by *linear* equations. In two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the *slope-intercept form*: $y = mx + b$ where:
- *m* is the slope or gradient of the line.
- *b* is the y-intercept of the line.
- *x* is the independent variable of the function *y* = *f*(*x*).
In a manner analogous to the way lines in a two-dimensional space are described using a point-slope form for their equations, planes in a three dimensional space have a natural description using a point in the plane and a vector orthogonal to it (the normal vector) to indicate its \"inclination\".
Specifically, let $\mathbf{r}_0$ be the position vector of some point $P_0 = (x_0,y_0,z_0)$, and let $\mathbf{n} = (a,b,c)$ be a nonzero vector. The plane determined by this point and vector consists of those points $P$, with position vector $\mathbf{r}$, such that the vector drawn from $P_0$ to $P$ is perpendicular to $\mathbf{n}$. Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the desired plane can be described as the set of all points $\mathbf{r}$ such that $\mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}_0) =0.$ (The dot here means a dot product, not scalar multiplication.) Expanded this becomes $a (x-x_0)+ b(y-y_0)+ c(z-z_0)=0,$ `{{cn span|text=which is the ''point-normal'' form of the equation of a plane. |date=April 2022}}`{=mediawiki} This is just a linear equation: $ax + by + cz + d = 0, \text{ where } d = -(ax_0 + by_0 + cz_0).$ Conversely, it is easily shown that if *a*, *b*, *c* and *d* are constants and *a*, *b*, and *c* are not all zero, then the graph of the equation $ax + by + cz + d = 0,$ `{{cn span|text=is a plane having the vector <math>\mathbf{n} = (a,b,c)</math> as a normal.|date=April 2022}}`{=mediawiki} This familiar equation for a plane is called the *general form* of the equation of the plane.
In three dimensions, lines can *not* be described by a single linear equation, so they are frequently described by parametric equations: $x = x_0 + at$ $y = y_0 + bt$ $z = z_0 + ct$ where:
- *x*, *y*, and *z* are all functions of the independent variable *t* which ranges over the real numbers.
- (*x*~0~, *y*~0~, *z*~0~) is any point on the line.
- *a*, *b*, and *c* are related to the slope of the line, such that the vector (*a*, *b*, *c*) is parallel to the line.
### Conic sections {#conic_sections}
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the graph of a quadratic equation in two variables is always a conic section -- though it may be degenerate, and all conic sections arise in this way. The equation will be of the form $Ax^2 + Bxy + Cy^2 +Dx + Ey + F = 0\text{ with }A, B, C\text{ not all zero.}$ As scaling all six constants yields the same locus of zeros, one can consider conics as points in the five-dimensional projective space $\mathbf{P}^5.$
The conic sections described by this equation can be classified using the discriminant
$B^2 - 4AC .$ If the conic is non-degenerate, then:
- if $B^2 - 4AC < 0$, the equation represents an ellipse;
- if $A = C$ and $B = 0$, the equation represents a circle, which is a special case of an ellipse;
- if $B^2 - 4AC = 0$, the equation represents a parabola;
- if $B^2 - 4AC > 0$, the equation represents a hyperbola;
- if we also have $A + C = 0$, the equation represents a rectangular hyperbola.
### Quadric surfaces {#quadric_surfaces}
A **quadric**, or **quadric surface**, is a *2*-dimensional surface in 3-dimensional space defined as the locus of zeros of a quadratic polynomial. In coordinates `{{nowrap|''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>,''x''<sub>3</sub>}}`{=mediawiki}, the general quadric is defined by the algebraic equation
$\sum_{i,j=1}^{3} x_i Q_{ij} x_j + \sum_{i=1}^{3} P_i x_i + R = 0.$
Quadric surfaces include ellipsoids (including the sphere), paraboloids, hyperboloids, cylinders, cones, and planes.
## Distance and angle {#distance_and_angle}
In analytic geometry, geometric notions such as distance and angle measure are defined using formulas. These definitions are designed to be consistent with the underlying Euclidean geometry. For example, using Cartesian coordinates on the plane, the distance between two points (*x*~1~, *y*~1~) and (*x*~2~, *y*~2~) is defined by the formula $d = \sqrt{(x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2},$ which can be viewed as a version of the Pythagorean theorem. Similarly, the angle that a line makes with the horizontal can be defined by the formula $\theta = \arctan(m),$ where *m* is the slope of the line.
In three dimensions, distance is given by the generalization of the Pythagorean theorem: $d = \sqrt{(x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2+ (z_2 - z_1)^2},$ while the angle between two vectors is given by the dot product. The dot product of two Euclidean vectors **A** and **B** is defined by $\mathbf A\cdot\mathbf B \stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=} \left\|\mathbf A\right\| \left\|\mathbf B\right\| \cos\theta,$ where *θ* is the angle between **A** and **B**.
## Transformations
\[\[<File:FourGeometryTransformations.svg%7Cthumb%7C400px>\|
a\) y = f(x) = \|x\| `{{spaces|5}}`{=mediawiki} b) y = f(x+3) `{{spaces|5}}`{=mediawiki} c) y = f(x)-3 `{{spaces|5}}`{=mediawiki} d) y = 1/2 f(x)
\]\]
Transformations are applied to a parent function to turn it into a new function with similar characteristics.
The graph of $R(x,y)$ is changed by standard transformations as follows:
- Changing $x$ to $x-h$ moves the graph to the right $h$ units.
- Changing $y$ to $y-k$ moves the graph up $k$ units.
- Changing $x$ to $x/b$ stretches the graph horizontally by a factor of $b$. (think of the $x$ as being dilated)
- Changing $y$ to $y/a$ stretches the graph vertically.
- Changing $x$ to $x\cos A+ y\sin A$ and changing $y$ to $-x\sin A + y\cos A$ rotates the graph by an angle $A$.
There are other standard transformation not typically studied in elementary analytic geometry because the transformations change the shape of objects in ways not usually considered. Skewing is an example of a transformation not usually considered. For more information, consult the Wikipedia article on affine transformations.
For example, the parent function $y=1/x$ has a horizontal and a vertical asymptote, and occupies the first and third quadrant, and all of its transformed forms have one horizontal and vertical asymptote, and occupies either the 1st and 3rd or 2nd and 4th quadrant. In general, if $y=f(x)$, then it can be transformed into $y=af(b(x-k))+h$. In the new transformed function, $a$ is the factor that vertically stretches the function if it is greater than 1 or vertically compresses the function if it is less than 1, and for negative $a$ values, the function is reflected in the $x$-axis. The $b$ value compresses the graph of the function horizontally if greater than 1 and stretches the function horizontally if less than 1, and like $a$, reflects the function in the $y$-axis when it is negative. The $k$ and $h$ values introduce translations, $h$, vertical, and $k$ horizontal. Positive $h$ and $k$ values mean the function is translated to the positive end of its axis and negative meaning translation towards the negative end.
Transformations can be applied to any geometric equation whether or not the equation represents a function. Transformations can be considered as individual transactions or in combinations.
Suppose that $R(x,y)$ is a relation in the $xy$ plane. For example, $x^2+y^2-1=0$ is the relation that describes the unit circle.
## Finding intersections of geometric objects `{{anchor|Intersections}}`{=mediawiki} {#finding_intersections_of_geometric_objects}
For two geometric objects P and Q represented by the relations $P(x,y)$ and $Q(x,y)$ the intersection is the collection of all points $(x,y)$ which are in both relations.
For example, $P$ might be the circle with radius 1 and center $(0,0)$: $P = \{(x,y) | x^2+y^2=1\}$ and $Q$ might be the circle with radius 1 and center $(1,0): Q = \{(x,y) | (x-1)^2+y^2=1\}$. The intersection of these two circles is the collection of points which make both equations true. Does the point $(0,0)$ make both equations true? Using $(0,0)$ for $(x,y)$, the equation for $Q$ becomes $(0-1)^2+0^2=1$ or $(-1)^2=1$ which is true, so $(0,0)$ is in the relation $Q$. On the other hand, still using $(0,0)$ for $(x,y)$ the equation for $P$ becomes $0^2+0^2=1$ or $0=1$ which is false. $(0,0)$ is not in $P$ so it is not in the intersection.
The intersection of $P$ and $Q$ can be found by solving the simultaneous equations:
$x^2+y^2 = 1$ $(x-1)^2+y^2 = 1.$
Traditional methods for finding intersections include substitution and elimination.
**Substitution:** Solve the first equation for $y$ in terms of $x$ and then substitute the expression for $y$ into the second equation:
$x^2+y^2 = 1$ $y^2=1-x^2.$
We then substitute this value for $y^2$ into the other equation and proceed to solve for $x$: $(x-1)^2+(1-x^2)=1$ $x^2 -2x +1 +1 -x^2 =1$ $-2x = -1$ $x=1/2.$
Next, we place this value of $x$ in either of the original equations and solve for $y$:
$(1/2)^2+y^2 = 1$ $y^2 =3/4$ $y = \frac{\pm \sqrt{3}}{2}.$
So our intersection has two points: $\left(1/2,\frac{+ \sqrt{3}}{2}\right) \;\; \text{and} \;\; \left(1/2,\frac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}\right).$
**Elimination**: Add (or subtract) a multiple of one equation to the other equation so that one of the variables is eliminated. For our current example, if we subtract the first equation from the second we get $(x-1)^2-x^2=0$. The $y^2$ in the first equation is subtracted from the $y^2$ in the second equation leaving no $y$ term. The variable $y$ has been eliminated. We then solve the remaining equation for $x$, in the same way as in the substitution method:
$x^2 -2x +1 -x^2 =0$ $-2x = -1$ $x=1/2.$
We then place this value of $x$ in either of the original equations and solve for $y$: $(1/2)^2+y^2 = 1$ $y^2 = 3/4$ $y = \frac{\pm \sqrt{3}}{2}.$
So our intersection has two points: $\left(1/2,\frac{+ \sqrt{3}}{2}\right) \;\; \text{and} \;\; \left(1/2,\frac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}\right).$
For conic sections, as many as 4 points might be in the intersection.
### Finding intercepts {#finding_intercepts}
One type of intersection which is widely studied is the intersection of a geometric object with the $x$ and $y$ coordinate axes.
The intersection of a geometric object and the $y$-axis is called the $y$-intercept of the object. The intersection of a geometric object and the $x$-axis is called the $x$-intercept of the object.
For the line $y=mx+b$, the parameter $b$ specifies the point where the line crosses the $y$ axis. Depending on the context, either $b$ or the point $(0,b)$ is called the $y$-intercept.
## Geometric axis {#geometric_axis}
Axis in geometry is the perpendicular line to any line, object or a surface.
Also for this may be used the common language use as a: normal (perpendicular) line, otherwise in engineering as *axial line*.
In geometry, a **normal** is an object such as a line or vector that is perpendicular to a given object. For example, in the two-dimensional case, the **normal line** to a curve at a given point is the line perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at the point.
In the three-dimensional case a **surface normal**, or simply **normal**, to a surface at a point *P* is a vector that is perpendicular to the tangent plane to that surface at *P*. The word \"normal\" is also used as an adjective: a line normal to a plane, the normal component of a force, the **normal vector**, etc. The concept of **normality** generalizes to orthogonality.
## Spherical and nonlinear planes and their tangents {#spherical_and_nonlinear_planes_and_their_tangents}
Tangent is the linear approximation of a spherical or other curved or twisted line of a function.
### Tangent lines and planes {#tangent_lines_and_planes}
In geometry, the **tangent line** (or simply **tangent**) to a plane curve at a given point is the straight line that \"just touches\" the curve at that point. Informally, it is a line through a pair of infinitely close points on the curve. More precisely, a straight line is said to be a tangent of a curve `{{nowrap|1=''y'' = ''f''(''x'')}}`{=mediawiki} at a point `{{nowrap|1=''x'' = ''c''}}`{=mediawiki} on the curve if the line passes through the point `{{nowrap|(''c'', ''f''(''c''))}}`{=mediawiki} on the curve and has slope `{{nowrap|''f''{{'}}`{=mediawiki}(*c*)}} where *f*{{\'}} is the derivative of *f*. A similar definition applies to space curves and curves in *n*-dimensional Euclidean space.
As it passes through the point where the tangent line and the curve meet, called the **point of tangency**, the tangent line is \"going in the same direction\" as the curve, and is thus the best straight-line approximation to the curve at that point.
Similarly, the **tangent plane** to a surface at a given point is the plane that \"just touches\" the surface at that point. The concept of a tangent is one of the most fundamental notions in differential geometry and has been extensively generalized; see Tangent space.
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Additive synthesis
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**Additive synthesis** is a sound synthesis technique that creates timbre by adding sine waves together.
The timbre of musical instruments can be considered in the light of Fourier theory to consist of multiple harmonic or inharmonic *partials* or overtones. Each partial is a sine wave of different frequency and amplitude that swells and decays over time due to modulation from an ADSR envelope or low frequency oscillator.
Additive synthesis most directly generates sound by adding the output of multiple sine wave generators. Alternative implementations may use pre-computed wavetables or the inverse fast Fourier transform.
## Explanation
The sounds that are heard in everyday life are not characterized by a single frequency. Instead, they consist of a sum of pure sine frequencies, each one at a different amplitude. When humans hear these frequencies simultaneously, we can recognize the sound. This is true for both \"non-musical\" sounds (e.g. water splashing, leaves rustling, etc.) and for \"musical sounds\" (e.g. a piano note, a bird\'s tweet, etc.). This set of parameters (frequencies, their relative amplitudes, and how the relative amplitudes change over time) are encapsulated by the *timbre* of the sound. Fourier analysis is the technique that is used to determine these exact timbre parameters from an overall sound signal; conversely, the resulting set of frequencies and amplitudes is called the Fourier series of the original sound signal.
In the case of a musical note, the lowest frequency of its timbre is designated as the sound\'s fundamental frequency. For simplicity, we often say that the note is playing at that fundamental frequency (e.g. \"middle C is 261.6 Hz\"), even though the sound of that note consists of many other frequencies as well. The set of the remaining frequencies is called the overtones (or the harmonics, if their frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency) of the sound. In other words, the fundamental frequency alone is responsible for the pitch of the note, while the overtones define the timbre of the sound. The overtones of a piano playing middle C will be quite different from the overtones of a violin playing the same note; that\'s what allows us to differentiate the sounds of the two instruments. There are even subtle differences in timbre between different versions of the same instrument (for example, an upright piano vs. a grand piano).
Additive synthesis aims to exploit this property of sound in order to construct timbre from the ground up. By adding together pure frequencies (sine waves) of varying frequencies and amplitudes, we can precisely define the timbre of the sound that we want to create.
## Definitions
Harmonic additive synthesis is closely related to the concept of a Fourier series which is a way of expressing a periodic function as the sum of sinusoidal functions with frequencies equal to integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. These sinusoids are called harmonics, overtones, or generally, partials. In general, a Fourier series contains an infinite number of sinusoidal components, with no upper limit to the frequency of the sinusoidal functions and includes a DC component (one with frequency of 0 Hz). Frequencies outside of the human audible range can be omitted in additive synthesis. As a result, only a finite number of sinusoidal terms with frequencies that lie within the audible range are modeled in additive synthesis.
A waveform or function is said to be periodic if
: $y(t) = y(t+P)$
for all $t$ and for some period $P$.
The Fourier series of a periodic function is mathematically expressed as:
: \\begin{align}
` y(t) &= \frac{a_0}{2} + \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \left[ a_k \cos(2 \pi k f_0 t ) - b_k \sin(2 \pi k f_0 t ) \right] \\`\
` &= \frac{a_0}{2} + \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} r_k \cos\left(2 \pi k f_0 t + \phi_k \right) \\`\
` \end{align} `
where
- $f_0 = 1/P$ is the fundamental frequency of the waveform and is equal to the reciprocal of the period,
- $a_k = r_k \cos(\phi_k) = 2 f_0 \int_{0}^P y(t) \cos(2 \pi k f_0 t)\, dt, \quad k \ge 0$
- $b_k = r_k \sin(\phi_k) = -2 f_0 \int_{0}^P y(t) \sin(2 \pi k f_0 t)\, dt, \quad k \ge 1$
- $r_k = \sqrt{a_k^2 + b_k^2}$ is the amplitude of the $k$th harmonic,
- $\phi_k = \operatorname{atan2}(b_k, a_k)$ is the phase offset of the $k$th harmonic. atan2 is the four-quadrant arctangent function,
Being inaudible, the DC component, $a_0/2$, and all components with frequencies higher than some finite limit, $K f_0$, are omitted in the following expressions of additive synthesis.
### Harmonic form {#harmonic_form}
The simplest harmonic additive synthesis can be mathematically expressed as:
where $y(t)$ is the synthesis output, $r_k$, $k f_0$, and $\phi_k$ are the amplitude, frequency, and the phase offset, respectively, of the $k$th harmonic partial of a total of $K$ harmonic partials, and $f_0$ is the fundamental frequency of the waveform and the frequency of the musical note.
### Time-dependent amplitudes {#time_dependent_amplitudes}
-- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example of harmonic additive synthesis in which each harmonic has a time-dependent amplitude. The fundamental frequency is 440 Hz. Problems listening to this file? See Media help
-- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
More generally, the amplitude of each harmonic can be prescribed as a function of time, $r_k(t)$, in which case the synthesis output is
Each envelope $r_k(t)\,$ should vary slowly relative to the frequency spacing between adjacent sinusoids. The bandwidth of $r_k(t)$ should be significantly less than $f_0$.
### Inharmonic form {#inharmonic_form}
Additive synthesis can also produce inharmonic sounds (which are aperiodic waveforms) in which the individual overtones need not have frequencies that are integer multiples of some common fundamental frequency. While many conventional musical instruments have harmonic partials (e.g. an oboe), some have inharmonic partials (e.g. bells). Inharmonic additive synthesis can be described as
: $y(t) = \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k(t) \cos\left(2 \pi f_k t + \phi_k \right),$
where $f_k$ is the constant frequency of $k$th partial.
-- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example of inharmonic additive synthesis in which both the amplitude and frequency of each partial are time-dependent. Problems listening to this file? See Media help
-- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
### Time-dependent frequencies {#time_dependent_frequencies}
In the general case, the instantaneous frequency of a sinusoid is the derivative (with respect to time) of the argument of the sine or cosine function. If this frequency is represented in hertz, rather than in angular frequency form, then this derivative is divided by $2 \pi$. This is the case whether the partial is harmonic or inharmonic and whether its frequency is constant or time-varying.
In the most general form, the frequency of each non-harmonic partial is a non-negative function of time, $f_k(t)$, yielding
### Broader definitions {#broader_definitions}
*Additive synthesis* more broadly may mean sound synthesis techniques that sum simple elements to create more complex timbres, even when the elements are not sine waves. For example, F. Richard Moore listed additive synthesis as one of the \"four basic categories\" of sound synthesis alongside subtractive synthesis, nonlinear synthesis, and physical modeling. In this broad sense, pipe organs, which also have pipes producing non-sinusoidal waveforms, can be considered as a variant form of additive synthesizers. Summation of principal components and Walsh functions have also been classified as additive synthesis.
## Implementation methods {#implementation_methods}
Modern-day implementations of additive synthesis are mainly digital. (See section *Discrete-time equations* for the underlying discrete-time theory)
### Oscillator bank synthesis {#oscillator_bank_synthesis}
Additive synthesis can be implemented using a bank of sinusoidal oscillators, one for each partial.
### Wavetable synthesis {#wavetable_synthesis}
In the case of harmonic, quasi-periodic musical tones, wavetable synthesis can be as general as time-varying additive synthesis, but requires less computation during synthesis. As a result, an efficient implementation of time-varying additive synthesis of harmonic tones can be accomplished by use of *wavetable synthesis*.
#### Group additive synthesis {#group_additive_synthesis}
Group additive synthesis is a method to group partials into harmonic groups (having different fundamental frequencies) and synthesize each group separately with *wavetable synthesis* before mixing the results.
### Inverse FFT synthesis {#inverse_fft_synthesis}
An inverse fast Fourier transform can be used to efficiently synthesize frequencies that evenly divide the transform period or \"frame\". By careful consideration of the DFT frequency-domain representation it is also possible to efficiently synthesize sinusoids of arbitrary frequencies using a series of overlapping frames and the inverse fast Fourier transform.
## Additive analysis/resynthesis {#additive_analysisresynthesis}
It is possible to analyze the frequency components of a recorded sound giving a \"sum of sinusoids\" representation. This representation can be re-synthesized using additive synthesis. One method of decomposing a sound into time varying sinusoidal partials is short-time Fourier transform (STFT)-based McAulay-Quatieri Analysis.
By modifying the sum of sinusoids representation, timbral alterations can be made prior to resynthesis. For example, a harmonic sound could be restructured to sound inharmonic, and vice versa. Sound hybridisation or \"morphing\" has been implemented by additive resynthesis.
Additive analysis/resynthesis has been employed in a number of techniques including Sinusoidal Modelling, Spectral Modelling Synthesis (SMS), and the Reassigned Bandwidth-Enhanced Additive Sound Model. Software that implements additive analysis/resynthesis includes: SPEAR, LEMUR, LORIS, SMSTools, ARSS.
### Products
New England Digital Synclavier had a resynthesis feature where samples could be analyzed and converted into \"timbre frames\" which were part of its additive synthesis engine. Technos acxel, launched in 1987, utilized the additive analysis/resynthesis model, in an FFT implementation.
Also a vocal synthesizer, Vocaloid have been implemented on the basis of additive analysis/resynthesis: its spectral voice model called Excitation plus Resonances (EpR) model is extended based on Spectral Modeling Synthesis (SMS), and its diphone concatenative synthesis is processed using *spectral peak processing* (SPP) technique similar to modified phase-locked vocoder (an improved phase vocoder for formant processing). Using these techniques, spectral components (*formants*) consisting of purely harmonic partials can be appropriately transformed into desired form for sound modeling, and sequence of short samples (*diphones* or *phonemes*) constituting desired phrase, can be smoothly connected by interpolating matched partials and formant peaks, respectively, in the inserted transition region between different samples. (See also Dynamic timbres)
## Applications
### Musical instruments {#musical_instruments}
Additive synthesis is used in electronic musical instruments. It is the principal sound generation technique used by Eminent organs.
### Speech synthesis {#speech_synthesis}
In linguistics research, harmonic additive synthesis was used in the 1950s to play back modified and synthetic speech spectrograms.
Later, in the early 1980s, listening tests were carried out on synthetic speech stripped of acoustic cues to assess their significance. Time-varying formant frequencies and amplitudes derived by linear predictive coding were synthesized additively as pure tone whistles. This method is called sinewave synthesis. Also the composite sinusoidal modeling (CSM) used on a singing speech synthesis feature on the Yamaha CX5M (1984), is known to use a similar approach which was independently developed during 1966--1979. These methods are characterized by extraction and recomposition of a set of significant spectral peaks corresponding to the several resonance modes occurring in the oral cavity and nasal cavity, in a viewpoint of acoustics. This principle was also utilized on a physical modeling synthesis method, called modal synthesis.
## History
Harmonic analysis was discovered by Joseph Fourier, who published an extensive treatise of his research in the context of heat transfer in 1822. The theory found an early application in prediction of tides. Around 1876, William Thomson (later ennobled as Lord Kelvin) constructed a mechanical tide predictor. It consisted of a *harmonic analyzer* and a *harmonic synthesizer*, as they were called already in the 19th century. The analysis of tide measurements was done using James Thomson\'s *integrating machine*. The resulting Fourier coefficients were input into the synthesizer, which then used a system of cords and pulleys to generate and sum harmonic sinusoidal partials for prediction of future tides. In 1910, a similar machine was built for the analysis of periodic waveforms of sound. The synthesizer drew a graph of the combination waveform, which was used chiefly for visual validation of the analysis.
Georg Ohm applied Fourier\'s theory to sound in 1843. The line of work was greatly advanced by Hermann von Helmholtz, who published his eight years worth of research in 1863. Helmholtz believed that the psychological perception of tone color is subject to learning, while hearing in the sensory sense is purely physiological. He supported the idea that perception of sound derives from signals from nerve cells of the basilar membrane and that the elastic appendages of these cells are sympathetically vibrated by pure sinusoidal tones of appropriate frequencies. Helmholtz agreed with the finding of Ernst Chladni from 1787 that certain sound sources have inharmonic vibration modes.
In Helmholtz\'s time, electronic amplification was unavailable. For synthesis of tones with harmonic partials, Helmholtz built an electrically excited array of tuning forks and acoustic resonance chambers that allowed adjustment of the amplitudes of the partials. Built at least as early as in 1862, these were in turn refined by Rudolph Koenig, who demonstrated his own setup in 1872. For harmonic synthesis, Koenig also built a large apparatus based on his *wave siren*. It was pneumatic and utilized cut-out tonewheels, and was criticized for low purity of its partial tones. Also tibia pipes of pipe organs have nearly sinusoidal waveforms and can be combined in the manner of additive synthesis.
In 1938, with significant new supporting evidence, it was reported on the pages of Popular Science Monthly that the human vocal cords function like a fire siren to produce a harmonic-rich tone, which is then filtered by the vocal tract to produce different vowel tones. By the time, the additive Hammond organ was already on market. Most early electronic organ makers thought it too expensive to manufacture the plurality of oscillators required by additive organs, and began instead to build subtractive ones. In a 1940 Institute of Radio Engineers meeting, the head field engineer of Hammond elaborated on the company\'s new *Novachord* as having a *\"subtractive system\"* in contrast to the original Hammond organ in which *\"the final tones were built up by combining sound waves\"*. Alan Douglas used the qualifiers *additive* and *subtractive* to describe different types of electronic organs in a 1948 paper presented to the Royal Musical Association. The contemporary wording *additive synthesis* and *subtractive synthesis* can be found in his 1957 book *The electrical production of music*, in which he categorically lists three methods of forming of musical tone-colours, in sections titled *Additive synthesis*, *Subtractive synthesis*, and *Other forms of combinations*.
A typical modern additive synthesizer produces its output as an electrical, analog signal, or as digital audio, such as in the case of software synthesizers, which became popular around year 2000.
### Timeline
The following is a timeline of historically and technologically notable analog and digital synthesizers and devices implementing additive synthesis.
Research implementation or publication Commercially available Company or institution Synthesizer or synthesis device Description Audio samples
---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ------------------------------------ --------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1900 1906 New England Electric Music Company Telharmonium The first polyphonic, touch-sensitive music synthesizer. Implemented sinuosoidal additive synthesis using tonewheels and alternators. Invented by Thaddeus Cahill. *no known recordings*
1933 1935 Hammond Organ Company Hammond Organ An electronic additive synthesizer that was commercially more successful than Telharmonium. Implemented sinusoidal additive synthesis using tonewheels and magnetic pickups. Invented by Laurens Hammond.
1950 or earlier Haskins Laboratories Pattern Playback A speech synthesis system that controlled amplitudes of harmonic partials by a spectrogram that was either hand-drawn or an analysis result. The partials were generated by a multi-track optical tonewheel. [samples](http://www.haskins.yale.edu/featured/sentences/ppsentences.html)
1958 ANS An additive synthesizer that played microtonal spectrogram-like scores using multiple multi-track optical tonewheels. Invented by Evgeny Murzin. A similar instrument that utilized electronic oscillators, the *Oscillator Bank*, and its input device *Spectrogram* were realized by Hugh Le Caine in 1959.
1963 MIT An off-line system for digital spectral analysis and resynthesis of the attack and steady-state portions of musical instrument timbres by David Luce.
1964 University of Illinois Harmonic Tone Generator An electronic, harmonic additive synthesis system invented by James Beauchamp. [samples](https://web.archive.org/web/20131228061841/http://ems.music.uiuc.edu/beaucham/htg_sounds/) ([info](https://web.archive.org/web/20120322191551/http://ems.music.uiuc.edu/beaucham/htg.html))
1974 or earlier 1974 RMI Harmonic Synthesizer The first synthesizer product that implemented additive synthesis using digital oscillators. The synthesizer also had a time-varying analog filter. RMI was a subsidiary of Allen Organ Company, which had released the first commercial digital church organ, the *Allen Computer Organ*, in 1971, using digital technology developed by North American Rockwell. [1](https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-drones) [2](https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-demos) [3](https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-arpeggiator-demo) [4](https://soundcloud.com/doombient-music/rmi-harmonic-intermodulation)
1974 EMS (London) Digital Oscillator Bank A bank of digital oscillators with arbitrary waveforms, individual frequency and amplitude controls, intended for use in analysis-resynthesis with the digital *Analysing Filter Bank* (AFB) also constructed at EMS. Also known as: *DOB*. in The New Sound of Music
1976 1976 Fairlight Qasar M8 An all-digital synthesizer that used the fast Fourier transform to create samples from interactively drawn amplitude envelopes of harmonics. [samples](http://anerd.com/fairlight/audioarchives/index.htm)
1977 Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer A real-time, digital additive synthesizer that has been called the first true digital synthesizer. Also known as: *Alles Machine*, *Alice*. [sample](http://retiary.org/ls/music/realaudio/ob_sys/05_alles_synth_improv.rm) ([info](http://retiary.org/ls/obsolete_systems/))
1979 1979 New England Digital Synclavier II A commercial digital synthesizer that enabled development of timbre over time by smooth cross-fades between waveforms generated by additive synthesis.
1996 Kawai K5000 A commercial digital synthesizer workstation capable of polyphonic, digital additive synthesis of up to 128 sinusodial waves, as well as combing PCM waves.
## Discrete-time equations {#discrete_time_equations}
In digital implementations of additive synthesis, discrete-time equations are used in place of the continuous-time synthesis equations. A notational convention for discrete-time signals uses brackets i.e. $y[n]\,$ and the argument $n\,$ can only be integer values. If the continuous-time synthesis output $y(t)\,$ is expected to be sufficiently bandlimited; below half the sampling rate or $f_\mathrm{s}/2\,$, it suffices to directly sample the continuous-time expression to get the discrete synthesis equation. The continuous synthesis output can later be reconstructed from the samples using a digital-to-analog converter. The sampling period is $T=1/f_\mathrm{s}\,$.
Beginning with (`{{EquationNote|3}}`{=mediawiki}),
: $y(t) = \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k(t) \cos\left(2 \pi \int_0^t f_k(u)\ du + \phi_k \right)$
and sampling at discrete times $t = nT = n/f_\mathrm{s} \,$ results in
$$\begin{align}
y[n] & = y(nT) = \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k(nT) \cos\left(2 \pi \int_0^{nT} f_k(u)\ du + \phi_k \right) \\
& = \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k(nT) \cos\left(2 \pi \sum_{i=1}^{n} \int_{(i-1)T}^{iT} f_k(u)\ du + \phi_k \right) \\
& = \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k(nT) \cos\left(2 \pi \sum_{i=1}^{n} (T f_k[i]) + \phi_k \right) \\
& = \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k[n] \cos\left(\frac{2 \pi}{f_\mathrm{s}} \sum_{i=1}^{n} f_k[i] + \phi_k \right) \\
\end{align}$$ where
: $r_k[n] = r_k(nT) \,$ is the discrete-time varying amplitude envelope
: $f_k[n] = \frac{1}{T} \int_{(n-1)T}^{nT} f_k(t)\ dt \,$ is the discrete-time backward difference instantaneous frequency.
This is equivalent to
: $y[n] = \sum_{k=1}^{K} r_k[n] \cos\left( \theta_k[n] \right)$
where
$$\begin{align}
\theta_k[n] &= \frac{2 \pi}{f_\mathrm{s}} \sum_{i=1}^{n} f_k[i] + \phi_k \\
&= \theta_k[n-1] + \frac{2 \pi}{f_\mathrm{s}} f_k[n] \\
\end{align}$$ for all $n>0\,$ and
: $\theta_k[0] = \phi_k. \,$
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Argentine cuisine
|
**Argentine cuisine** is described as a blending of cultures, from the Indigenous peoples of Argentina who focused on ingredients such as humita, potatoes, cassava, peppers, tomatoes, beans, and yerba mate, to Mediterranean influences brought by the Spanish during the colonial period. This was complemented by the significant influx of Italian and Spanish immigrants to Argentina during the 19th and 20th centuries, who incorporated plenty of their food customs and dishes such as pizzas, pasta and Spanish tortillas.
Beef is a main part of the Argentine diet due to its vast production in the country\'s plains. In fact, Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged 100 kg per capita, approaching 180 kg per capita during the 19th century; consumption averaged 67.7 kg in 2007.
Beyond *asado* (the Argentine barbecue), no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity. Nevertheless, the country\'s vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes.
The great immigratory waves consequently imprinted a large influence in the Argentine cuisine, after all Argentina was the second country in the world with the most immigrants with 6.6 million, only second to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of other immigratory receptor countries such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, etc.
Argentine people have a reputation for their love of eating. Social gatherings are commonly centred on sharing a meal. Invitations to have dinner at home are generally viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth, and integration. Sunday family lunch is considered the most significant meal of the week, whose highlights often include *asado* or pasta.
Another feature of Argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as French fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honour someone. Homemade food is also seen as a way to show affection.
Argentine restaurants include a great variety of cuisines, prices, and flavours. Large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine to *bodegones* (inexpensive traditional hidden taverns), less stylish restaurants, and bars and canteens offering a range of dishes at affordable prices.
## History
Amerindians lived in Argentina thousands of years before European explorers arrived. They mostly lived off of hunting, gathering, and fishing. Generally, the most common crops at this time were maize, potatoes, common beans, quinoa, and squash.
The Argentinian native people could be divided in three groups based on their main modality of acquiring food:
- Hunters and gatherers who inhabited the Patagonia, Pampa, and Chaco regions.
- Farmers in the northwestern, Cuyo, and Cordoba\'s mountain regions who mostly grew squash, melons, and sweet potatoes. These groups had great influence from Andean-Incan tradition.
- Farmers in the Mesopotamia plains who belonged to the guaraní culture.
Spanish settlers came to Argentina in 1536 and began building *chacras* where Amerindians would work to harvest the food. The arrival of Europeans brought Argentina into the Columbian Exchange, with ingredients from the Old World such as wheat, grapevine, figs, and several kinds of fruits being introduced to the country for the first time. It was also during the Spanish colonial period that cattle, goat, and pig farming were first introduced to Argentina, forming the foundation of the large Argentine beef industry.
Between 1853 and 1955, 6.6 million immigrants came to live in Argentina from Europe (especially from Italy, Wales, Germany and Switzerland), the Near and Middle East, Russia and Japan. They contributed to the development of Argentine cuisine by encouraging the production of a wider variety of foods. They also bought lands where they built *chacras* and encouraged the growth of farming. By this point, Argentina was the country with most immigrants only second to the United States.
During the XIX century, social standing was not associated with access to food. The price of beef, fish, and bird meats was cheap and accessible. However, grains and wheat was scarce so bread was very expensive. Some of the most common dishes during this time were soups with pork chunks, cooked partridge with legumes, spinach bread, beef slices, and lamb stew. The most prominent spices were garlic, parsley, and pepper.
By the turn of the century, Argentine Cuisine was on a constant decline due to shortage of several ingredients. However, eating habits began to shift with further immigration which facilitated a gastronomic revolution. Most immigrants in the 1900s came from Italy and Spain. The Italians introduced pizza, as well as a variety of pasta dishes, including spaghetti and lasagna. British, German, Jewish, and other immigrants also settled in Argentina, all bringing their styles of cooking and favorite foods with them. The British brought tea, starting the tradition of teatime. All of these cultures influenced the dishes of Argentina.
At this time, Italian cuisine began to really become a part of the cuisine. The neighborhood of La Boca, Buenos Aires, was the first big Italian hub, and from here plenty of traditionally Italian ingredients and eating habits expanded across the country. Different kinds of pastas such as long noodles or *tallarines*, gnocchi, ravioli, and cannelloni filled with ricotta cheese became popular along with pizza, fainá (Argentinian version of the traditional Italian farinata), and milanesas. Different ways of preparing dishes were also adopted from Italian immigrants. These included the preparation of ice cream, fish, and shellfish. Spanish immigrants also left their mark, popularizing eating dry nuts, tomato sauce, pesto, olives, and olive oil. Additionally, deli stores started to incorporate traditional Iberian hams and sausages and great varieties of cheeses yet these were more limited. They were also mainly responsible for the massive diffusion of wine consumption, among some other habits. This occurred at the same time that other global products began arriving to Argentina such as saffron, cod, different varieties of beans, chickpeas, additional spices, chocolates, and tea.
## Typical foods {#typical_foods}
Most regions of Argentina are known for their beef-oriented diet. Grilled meat from the *asado* (barbecue) is a staple, with steak and beef ribs especially common. The term *asado* itself refers to long strips of flank-cut beef ribs.
Popular items such as *chorizo* (pork sausage), *morcilla* (blood sausage), *chinchulines* (chitterlings), *mollejas* (sweetbread), and other parts of the animal are also enjoyed.
In Patagonia, however, lamb and chivito (goat) are eaten more frequently than beef. Whole lambs and goats are traditionally cooked over an open fire in a technique known as asado a la estaca.
The most common condiment for asado is *chimichurri*, a sauce of herbs, garlic and vinegar. Unlike other preparations, Argentines do not include chilli in their version of *chimichurri*, but it does include a still-spicy, but milder form of red pepper, ají molido.
Breaded and fried meats (*milanesas)* are used as snacks, in sandwiches, or eaten warm with mashed potatoes, *purée*. *Empanadas,* small pastries of meat, cheese, sweet corn, and many other fillings, are a common sight at parties and picnics, or as starters to a meal. They also vary in their looks, since they are folded with a traditional decorative edging called *repulgue*. The *repulgue* is not just aesthetic, but also serves as a way to identify the flavor of each empanada since they are traditionally ordered in dozens where people mix and match flavors. Empanadas are one of the most important staples of this country due to the wide array of varieties.
The empanadas seen in Argentina today originate from a Spanish dish from the fifteenth century where travelers used easy-to-carry bread and filled it with a variety of ingredients. Eventually it evolved into a popular gastronomic item and spread across the world. Variations of empanadas both inside and outside of Argentina include the *empanada gallega* (Galician *empanada*), a large round meat pie made most commonly with tuna and mackerel (*caballa* in Spanish).
Vegetables and salads are also eaten by Argentines; tomatoes, onions, lettuce, eggplants, squashes, and zucchini are common side dishes.
Italian staples, such as pizza and pasta, are eaten as commonly as beef. *Fideos* (noodles), *tallarines* (*fettuccine* and *tagliatelle*), *ñoquis* (*gnocchi*) are traditionally served on the 29th day of the month, *ravioles*, and *canelones* (*cannelloni*) can be bought freshly made in many establishments in the larger cities. Italian-style ice cream is served in large parlours and even drive-through businesses. Other Italian staples are *polenta*, *tarta pascualina*, and *pastafrola*.
In Chubut, the Welsh community is known for its teahouses, offering scones and *torta galesa*, which is rather like *torta negra*.
A fosforito is a ham and cheese sandwich using puff pastry as the bread. *Sandwiches de miga* are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered English bread, very thinly sliced cured meat, cheese, and lettuce. They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and may be eaten for a light evening meal.
A sweet paste, *dulce de leche* is another treasured national food, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast, or served with ice cream. In terms of sweets, *Alfajores* are another key staple. These are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate and *dulce de leche* or a fruit paste. The \"policeman\'s\" or \"truck driver\'s\" sweet is cheese with quince paste or *dulce de membrillo*. *Dulce de batata* is made of sweet potato/yam: this with cheese is the *Martín Fierro*\'s sweet. Additionally, ice cream shops or *heladerias* are a big boom especially in the city of Buenos Aires. Argentinian ice cream comes in plenty of flavors (from fruits to cheesecake and even dulce de leche flavors) and has a special smoothness as it follows a recipe very similar to that of Italian gelato.
Apples, pears, peaches, kiwifruits, avocados, and plums are major exports.
A traditional drink of Argentina is an infusion called *mate* (in Spanish, *mate*, with the accent on the first syllable \[MAH-teh\]). The name comes from the hollow gourd from which it is traditionally drunk.
The *mate* (gourd) or other small cup is filled about three-quarters full with *yerba mate*, the dried leaves and twigs of the *Ilex paraguariensis*. The drink, which is rather bitter, is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a *bombilla*. *Mate* can be sweetened with sugar, or flavoured with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel.
Hot but not boiling water is poured into the gourd, drunk, then the *mate* is refilled. The *mate* is nearly full of leaves, so each refill only makes a small drink, but many refills are possible before the *yerba* is spent. In small gatherings it is traditional for one *mate* to be passed from person to person, filled by whoever has the kettle. It is customary not to thank the refiller routinely; a final *gracias* (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough.
Drinking *mate* together is an important social ritual. *Mate cocido* is the same leaf, which rather than brewed is boiled and served, like tea, with milk and sugar to taste.
Other typical drinks include wine (sometimes with soda water added); tea and coffee are equally important. Quilmes is the national brand of pale lager, named after the town of Quilmes, Buenos Aires, where it was first produced.
## Ingredients
Argentine cuisine uses locally-grown cereals, grains, oil seeds, fruits and vegetables, as well as meat.
Meat products have been dominant in the country since the 16th century. The country is regarded as a major beef, pork and poultry producing and consuming country. Certain areas such as those located in the south are usually engaged in activities involving sheep and lamb breeding, and shellfish, crustaceans, molluscs and salmonides fishing.
The vast breeding activity involving any type of cattle has given rise to a highly developed dairy industry that includes products like cow, sheep and camelide, *dulce de leche* and yogurts. Some of the cheeses from Argentina are *reggianito*, *sardo*, *provoleta* and *cremoso*. Argentina can also be conceived as a great industry engaged in the production of dried fruits, olives, all types of oils and spices.
In the Mesopotamia region, river fish such as silverside, surubi, dorado or boga are common.
## Regional differences {#regional_differences}
Argentine cuisine is heavily influenced by its European roots and has regional variations. *Asado*, *dulce de leche*, *empanadas*, and *yerba mate* are found throughout Argentina. In many parts of the country, food is prepared differently and different kinds of foods are made; this includes to a smaller degree food from pre-Columbian times, as in the Northwest.
### Central region and la Pampa {#central_region_and_la_pampa}
This region is composed of the city of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires Province, Córdoba, La Pampa, Santa Fe, and Entre Ríos.
This region, especially within the larger urban areas of Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba welcomed European immigrants. These were especially of Italian and Spanish descent. Nevertheless, there was also a migratory flow of German, Swiss, and Middle Eastern immigrants arriving in Argentina. As a result, dishes such as pasta, pizza, pucheros (stews), croquetas (fritters), sauces, embutidos (sausages), and chicken and meat courses brought a wider scope of options to daily menus. The bread-making, dessert, pastry, and dairy industries have achieved considerable development in this region.
The above-mentioned dishes have developed a distinctively Argentine nuance. That is why, for example, Argentine pasta includes a wide variety of dishes ranging from spaghetti, fusiles (fusilli), ñoquis (gnocchi), ravioli, cintas (pasta ribbons), and lasagne to the Argentine-made sorrentinos, agnolottis (agnolotti), canelones (cannelloni), and fetuchines (fettuccine).
Pizza---made with very thin, and sometimes thick, high-rising doughs, with or without cheese, cooked in the oven or *a la piedra* (on a stone oven), and stuffed with numerous ingredients---is a dish which can be found in nearly every corner of the country. Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba also serve it with fainá, which is a chick pea-flour dough placed over the piece of pizza. People say that what makes Argentine pizza unique is the blending of Italian and Spanish cultures. At the turn of the 19th century, immigrants from Naples and Genoa opened the first pizza bars, though Spanish residents subsequently owned most of the pizza businesses.
Bread products are consumed all around the country. The deeply rooted bread, pastry, and dessert-making tradition derive from blending the above nationalities\' products. Bakeries sell not only a wide scope of bread, cookies, and cakes, but also pastries. The latter resembles a sort of roll pastry whose main dough ingredient is either butter or fat and which may be simple or stuffed with dulce de leche, milk, jam, crema pastel, or quince or apple jelly, among other fillings. The most popular type of pastry is said to be that of *medialunas* (singular: *medialuna,* literally half-moon, that is to say, crescent), based upon French croissants. Sandwiches de miga are another type of bread products; they are made only with thin layers of white bread (generally referred to as crustless bread) and stuffed with food items ranging from ham and cheese to other more sophisticated combinations such as raw ham, tomatoes, olives, hard-boiled eggs, tuna, lettuce, red pepper, and the like.
Desserts and sweets are usually stuffed or covered with dulce de leche. The latter can be eaten alone or on top of cakes, alfajores, panqueques (crepes), and pastries, or as a topping spread over flan de leche. Chantilly cream is widely consumed and used in preparing sweets and desserts. Additionally, cakes, sponge cakes, and puddings are very popular dishes. Italian ice creams in this region also achieved a significant degree of development by adding local flavours that somehow preserved the local spirit involved in their preparation.
Although asado is eaten all over the country, its origin may be traced back to the Pampas. It entails many types of meat, which are generally eaten as follows: achuras (offal), morcilla (blood sausage), and sometimes also a provoleta (a piece of provolone cheese cooked on the grill with oregano) are eaten first. Then comes the choripán (a kind of spiced sausage made with pork or lamb and placed between two slices of bread), and finally meat such as asado de tira, vacío (flank steak), lomo (tenderloin), colita de cuadril (rump), matambre (rolled stuffed steak cut into slices and served cold), entraña (hanger steak); the list is never-ending. *Cabrito al asador* (roast kid or goat) is frequently eaten in the province of Córdoba.
### Northwest and Cuyo {#northwest_and_cuyo}
This region includes the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, and San Luis. It is also regarded as the one most influenced by Native Americans, and its foods are closely linked to the Andean-Incan tradition. When preparing regional dishes, potatoes and corn or wheat are almost always used, including quinoa (a cereal typically used in Incan cuisine), peppers, squashes, tomatoes and in some provinces beans. The most celebrated dishes are humita and tamal, in which the corn husk is stuffed with the corn filling itself, seasonings or meat.
This region is the most suitable to taste empanadas, particularly those stuffed with meat and offering different types of tempting varieties such as the *meat empanada*, salteña also filled with potatoes, or the *empanada tucumana*, which is stuffed with matambre and cut with a knife, or empanadas made with cheese. Empanadas are individual-sized and closed savoury pastries which may be fried or baked in the oven and are generally eaten with the hands.
Stews such as locro, carbonada, pollo al disco, and cazuelas (casseroles) are also typical dishes characterizing this region, which also include pumpkin or potato pudding stuffed with meat.
There are also some local holidays in this region related to food. For example, in Salta they hold a festival dedicated to a locally grown bean similar to Edamame. During this holiday, the traditional foods of corn and beans are celebrated. Meals of all kinds are eaten, always with these two ingredients as a side dish, and even competitions of who can eat a set number of beans in the shortest period of time are held.
### Mesopotamia
The humid and verdant area of north-east Argentina known as Mesopotamia, comprising the provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Misiones and Formosa is another area heavily influenced by Native Americans, particularly by the Guaraní tribe. Abounding in rivers and shores, it offers a wide diversity of fish species, such as dorado, pacú, surubi, boga and silverside.
Widely grown in this area, cassava is typically included in the region\'s dishes, as are other components of meals, such as the chipá (cassava and cheese bread). However, in this area Cassava is cooked alone too, boiled or fried, often as a side dish for Asado and empanadas. As well, mbeyú, chipá avatí, sopa paraguaya, sopa correntina, chipa solo or chipá con carne, el quibebé, el borí borí, chipá guasú o pastel de choclo, mbaipy, chipá mbocá o chipá caburé and some other similar meals that have as basis:manioc, corn, cheese and, sometimes, some meat.. Chipá from Cassava is often eaten during breakfast with yerba mate, prepared with hot water, or with café con leche. Sopa Paraguaya and pastel/Carta de Choclo are eaten for lunch or dinner. As regards products made with sugar, Papaya (mamón in Argentine Spanish) jam is typical of the north of this region.
The principal product of this region is certainly yerba mate. Consumed countrywide, this product features a peculiarity of its own in this area: it is not only prepared with hot water but, driven by the region\'s high temperatures, it is common to see it prepared with cold water as well, in which case the beverage is known as tereré.
### Patagonia
The large southern region of Patagonia is made up of the provinces Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. This area also includes the Antarctica and Islas del Atlántico Sur. (or southern atlantic islands). Their most typical food ingredients include fish and seafood from the sea and rivers and the products of the sheep that are widely farmed there.
Marine species such as salmon, spider crabs, squid and other shellfish and molluscs may be caught in the Atlantic Ocean. There are trout in the rivers.
The many berries grown in the area include cherries, bilberries, strawberries, rosa mosqueta and elders, which are made into jams.
The Northern and Central European settlements in this region have built up large-scale production of chocolate and its by-products. Viennese and German cuisine and pastries are also typically associated with this region.
Mutton and lamb, together with wild boar and venison tend to make up the region\'s meat-based dishes. Also typical of the southern region are smoked products, including salmon, stag, wild boar, and pheasant.
Patagonia has been profoundly influenced by the tribes living there since long before Europeans arrived, in particular, the Mapuches and the Araucanos. A typical dish prepared by the latter is the curanto (a term meaning \"hot stone\"). Its preparation involves making a fire in a hole about 150 cm deep in the ground, and heating stones in it. A bed of nalca or maqui leaves is arranged on top of the stones, and ingredients are added in turn on top. Ingredients vary, but may include beef, lamb, pork, chicken, Argentine chorizos (pork sausages), potatoes, sweet potatoes, apples and holed squashes filled with cheese, cream and peas. The food is covered with leaves and damp pieces of cloth to keep the heat in, and covered with plenty of soil.
## Alcoholic beverages {#alcoholic_beverages}
Though wine (*vino*) has traditionally been the most popular alcoholic beverage in Argentina, beer (*cerveza*; the Italian *birra* is frequently used) in recent decades has competed with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsatian colonists. The first were nearly all in the downtown of Buenos Aires (*el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires*), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, Quilmes and Llavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (in Buenos Aires Province), San Miguel de Tucumán in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of Mendoza and Salta.
The local consumption of beer has risen dramatically in the last generation: Argentines consumed 233 million litres in 1980 and 1.57 billion in 2007 (40 litres per capita). Outpacing that of wine since 2001, the growing production and consumption of beer have supported the existence of related events, for example, beer festivals called *Oktoberfests* or \"*Fiestas de la Cerveza*\" in locations that have a significant German population (Villa General Belgrano in Córdoba, San Carlos and Esperanza in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, Munich\'s *Oktoberfest*, and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of a vigorous population of Celtic lineage, principally of Irish origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as Saint Patrick\'s Day (*Día de San Patricio*), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations.
The consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is similar to that of the United States and somewhat lower than the Western European average. Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of *elaboraciones*, whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink cider (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from Asturias and Campania). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lowers economic classes at Christmas and New Year (the upper classes proverbially preferring to celebrate with locally produced champagne, although real old-line \"creole\" aristocrats will still drink cider, which is much more traditional).
Other widely consumed spirits are *aguardiente* (firewater) made from sugar cane, known as *caña quemada* (\"burnt cane\") or, simply, **\'caña**\' (\"cane\"). A folkloric note about *caña quemada*: until 21 June it is traditional to drink *caña quemada* with *ruda macho* (a variant of common rue), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the flu and other illnesses. *Caña* competes, mainly in rural areas, with gin (\"ginebra\"---as in the Dutch kind of gin.)
The bitter spirit Fernet, and particularly the Italian brand Fernet-Branca, is highly popular in Argentina. (A study in 2017 found that Argentines consume more than 75% of all fernet produced globally.) Fernet is most commonly enjoyed as a mixed drink with Coca-Cola. Given Fernet\'s qualities as a digestive aid, it is a common choice for an after-dinner digestif.
There are many artisanally produced liqueurs (distilled, flavoured alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example, those flavoured with orange, egg, anise, coffee, cherry and, inevitably, *dulce de leche*. The *Hesperidina* is a type of vermouth made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter *chitronchelo* or (in Italian) *citronella*, based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the Mezzogiorno and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, at Mar del Plata).
## Non-alcoholic specialties {#non_alcoholic_specialties}
Argentines enjoy a wide variety of non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both \"families\" are mixed; the *yerbiao* for example, is mate mixed with *caña* or gin). Among these, *mate* has long been the most widely enjoyed; in 2006, over 700,000 metric tons were harvested in Argentina, mostly for domestic consumption. Mate is also one of the top exports from Argentina, as it is valued all over the world.
The fact that mate is so prevalent in the Southern Cone, however, should not necessarily make visitors think that other infusions are rare in the region; in Argentina especially, given the strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of coffee is very common (141 cups per capita, annually). Chocolate infusions are also popular (the eating of chocolate is a Spanish influence, although the plant originated in Mesoamerica). This consumption grows during autumn and winter, or in the cold regions of the country; there are two dates where consumption of chocolate infusions is traditional in the primary educational centres: 25 May and 9 July, that is, the two national dates of Argentina.
English cultural influence (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th by British contacts with the Far East) has also made the consumption of tea very common.
Medicinal herbs are common in the whole country; among the most popular are: chamomile, lanceleaf, *boldo*, *poleo*, *peperina*, *carqueja*, thyme, *canchalagua*, rue (*macho* and *hembra*, that is, \"male\" and \"female\"), mallow, rosemary, passion flower, *bira bira*, *palán palán*, *muña muña*, to mention only the main ones. Many of these herbs are also used in apéritifs and bitters, whether alcoholic or not.
## Popular short-order dishes {#popular_short_order_dishes}
Common *restoranes* or *restaurantes* and *rotiserias* (grill restaurants) nearly anywhere in Argentina today serve (into the small hours) quickly prepared meals that in the course of the 20th century came to be known as *minutas*, \"short-order dishes\". Some of the dishes included in the category of *minutas* are *milanesas*, *churrascos*, *bifes* (beefsteaks), *escalopes*, *tallarines*, *ravioles* (ravioli), *ñoquis* (gnocchi), although some are very typical of locations that sell food: \"*bifes*\" and \"*milanesas*\" are served \"*a caballo*\" (\"on horseback\", with fried egg on top), \"*milanesa completa*\" (a *milanesa* with two fried eggs and French fries), \"*revuelto Gramajo*\", \"*colchón de arvejas*\" (an omelette made with peas), \"*suprema de pollo*\" (chicken supreme, usually breaded as a *milanesa*), *matambres*, \"*lengua a la vinagreta*\" (pickled tongue), and \"sandwiches\" (*sandwiches de miga*) are made with sliced white bread, rather than, say, rolls.
The most common sandwiches are those made of *milanesa*, baked ham and cheese, *pan de miga*, toast, *pebetes*, *panchos* (hot dogs), *choripanes*, *morcipanes*, etc.; from Montevideo comes a different species of sandwich called the *chivito*, even though it contains no goat meat.
*Picadas*, which are consumed at home or in bars, cafés, \"*cafetines*\" and \"*bodegones*\" are also popular; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of salame, olives in brine, french fries, *maníes* (peanuts), etc.; *picada*s are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (\"*fernet*\", beer, wine with soda, to give some common examples).
The people of Argentina greatly enjoy *helado* (ice creams of Italian lineage or sorbets Spanish lineage). In Spanish colonial times, a type of sorbet was made from hail or snow.
<File:Picadacordobesa.JPG%7CA> *picada*, the Italian-influenced between-meals standby
## Eating habits {#eating_habits}
Breakfast typically is small and consists of coffee (or mate) and pastry. In most parts of Argentina, lunch is the largest meal of the day. Excluding the largest cities, such as Buenos Aires, Rosario or Cordoba, most towns close for lunchtime. This is when most people return home to enjoy a large meal and siesta. Traditional lunches in Argentina are long and well developed. Argentines often have a light evening snack (called a \"merienda\" -- typically a coffee or mate and a pastry) and it is common to not eat dinner until 9 at night, or even later on weekends.
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Analysis of algorithms
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Ælle of Sussex
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**Ælle** (also **Aelle** or **Ella**) is recorded in much later medieval sources as the first king of the South Saxons, reigning in what is now called Sussex, England, from 477 to perhaps as late as 514.
According to the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle*, Ælle and three of his sons are said to have landed at a place called Cymensora and fought against the local Britons. The *Chronicle* goes on to report a victory dated to 491 at Anderitum (present day Pevensey Castle) where the battle ended with the Saxons slaughtering their Brittonic opponents to the last man.
Ælle was the first king recorded by the 8th century chronicler Bede to have held \"*imperium*\", or overlordship, over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the late 9th-century *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* (around four hundred years after his time) Ælle is recorded as being the first bretwalda, or \"Britain-ruler\", though there is no evidence that this was a contemporary title. Ælle\'s death is not recorded and although he may have been the founder of a South Saxon dynasty, there is no firm evidence linking him with later South Saxon rulers. The 12th-century chronicler Henry of Huntingdon produced an enhanced version of the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* that included 514 as the date of Ælle\'s death, but this is not secure.
## Historical context {#historical_context}
Historians are divided on the detail of Ælle\'s life and existence as it was during the least-documented period in English history of the last two millennia.
By the early 5th century, Britain had been Roman for over three hundred and fifty years. Amongst the enemies of Roman Britain were the Picts of central and northern Scotland, and the Gaels known as Scoti, who were raiders from Ireland. Also vexatious were the Saxons, the name Roman writers gave to the peoples who lived in the northern part of what is now Germany and the southern part of the Jutland peninsula. Saxon raids on the southern and eastern shores of England had been sufficiently alarming by the late 3rd century for the Romans to build the Saxon Shore forts, and subsequently to establish the role of the Count of the Saxon Shore to command the defence against these incursions. Roman control of Britain finally ended in the early part of the 5th century; the date usually given as marking the end of Roman Britain is 410, when the Emperor Honorius sent letters to the British, urging them to look to their own defence. Britain had been repeatedly stripped of troops to support usurpers\' claims to the Roman empire, and after 410 the Roman armies never returned.
Sources for events after this date are extremely scarce, but a tradition, reported as early as the mid-6th century by a British priest named Gildas, records that the British sent for help against the barbarians to Aetius, a Roman consul, probably in the late 440s. No help came. Subsequently, a British leader named Vortigern is supposed to have invited continental mercenaries to help fight the Picts who were attacking from the north. The leaders, whose names are recorded as Hengest and Horsa, rebelled, and a long period of warfare ensued. The invaders---Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians---gained control of parts of England, but lost a major battle at Mons Badonicus (the location of which is not known). Some authors have speculated that Ælle may have led the Saxon forces at this battle, while others reject the idea out of hand.
The British thus gained a respite, and peace lasted at least until the time Gildas was writing: that is, for perhaps forty or fifty years, from around the end of the 5th century until midway through the sixth. Shortly after Gildas\'s time, the Anglo-Saxon advance was resumed, and by the late 6th century nearly all of southern England was under the control of the continental invaders.
## Evidence from place names in Sussex {#evidence_from_place_names_in_sussex}
The early dates given in the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* for the colonization of Sussex are supported by an analysis of the place names of the region. The strongest evidence comes from place names that end in \"-ing\", such as Worthing and Angmering. These are known to derive from an earlier form ending in \"-ingas\". \"Hastings\" for example, derives from \"Hæstingas\" which may mean \"the followers or dependents of a person named Hæsta\", although others suggest the heavily Romanised region may have had names of Gallo-Roman origin derived from \"-ienses\". From west of Selsey Bill to east of Pevensey can be found the densest concentration of these names anywhere in Britain. There are a total of about forty-five place names in Sussex of this form, but personal names either were not associated with these places or fell out of use.
The preservation of Ælle\'s sons in Old English place names is unusual. The names of the founders, in other origin legends, seem to have British or Latin roots not Old English. It is likely that the foundation stories were actually known before the 9th century, but the annalists manipulated them to provide a common origin for the new regime. The origin stories purported that the British were defeated and replaced by invading Anglo-Saxons arriving in small ships. These stories were largely believed right up to the 19th century, but are now regarded as myths.
## Reign
If the dates given by the *Anglo-Saxon Chronicle* are accurate to within half a century, then Ælle\'s reign lies in the middle of the Anglo-Saxon expansion, and prior to the final conquest of the Britons. It also seems consistent with the dates given to assume that Ælle\'s battles predate Mons Badonicus.This in turn would explain the long gap, of fifty or more years, in the succession of the \"bretwaldas\": if the peace gained by the Britons did indeed hold till the second half of the 6th century, it is not to be expected that an Anglo-Saxon leader should have anything resembling overlordship of England during that time. The idea of a pause in the Anglo-Saxon advance is also supported by the account in Procopius of 6th century migration from Britain to the kingdom of the Franks. Procopius\'s account is consistent with what is known to be a contemporary colonization of Armorica (now Brittany, in France); the settlers appear to have been at least partly from Dumnonia (modern Cornwall), and the area acquired regions known as Dumnonée and Cornouaille. It seems likely that something at that time was interrupting the general flow of the Anglo-Saxons from the continent to Britain.
The dates for Ælle\'s battles are also reasonably consistent with what is known of events in the kingdom of the Franks at that time. Clovis I united the Franks into a single kingdom during the 480s and afterwards, and the Franks\' ability to exercise power along the southern coast of the English channel may have diverted Saxon adventurers to England rather than the continent.
It is possible, therefore, that a historical king named Ælle existed, who arrived from the continent in the late 5th century, and who conquered much of what is now Sussex. He may have been a prominent war chief with a leadership role in a federation of Anglo-Saxon groups fighting for territory in Britain at that time. This may be the origin of the reputation that led Bede to list him as holding overlordship over southern Britain. The battles listed in the *Chronicle* are compatible with a conquest of Sussex from west to east, against British resistance stiff enough to last fourteen years. His area of military control may have extended as far as Hampshire and north to the upper Thames valley, but it certainly did not extend across all of England south of the Humber, as Bede asserts.
The historian Guy Halsall argues that as Ælle immediately preceded a sequence of three contemporaries from the late sixth-century in Bede\'s original list (Ceawlin of Wessex, Æthelberht of Kent, and Rædwald of East Anglia), it is far more likely that Ælle dates to the mid sixth century, and that the *Chronicle* has moved his dates back a century in order to provide a foundation myth for Sussex which puts it chronologically and geographically between the origins of the kingdoms of Kent and Wessex.
## Death and burial {#death_and_burial}
Ælle\'s death is not recorded by the *Chronicle*, which gives no information about him, or his sons, or the South Saxons until 675, when the South Saxon king Æthelwalh was baptized.
It has been conjectured that, as Saxon war leader, Ælle may have met his death in the disastrous battle of Mount Badon when the Britons halted Saxon expansion. If Ælle died within the borders of his own kingdom then it may well have been that he was buried on Highdown Hill with his weapons and ornaments in the usual mode of burial among the South Saxons. Highdown Hill is the traditional burial-place of the kings of Sussex.
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Acadia University
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**Acadia University** is a public, predominantly undergraduate university located in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada, with some graduate programs at the master\'s level and one at the doctoral level. The enabling legislation consists of the Acadia University Act and the Amended Acadia University Act 2000.
The Wolfville Campus houses Acadia University Archives and the Acadia University Art Gallery. Acadia offers over 200 degree combinations in the faculties of arts, pure and applied science, professional studies, and theology. The student-faculty ratio is 15:1 and the average class size is 28. Open Acadia offers correspondence and distance education courses. Acadia does have Botanical Gardens known as the Harriet Irving Gardens. These gardens feature plants and trees native to the Acadian forest region.
## History
Acadia began as an extension of Horton Academy in 1828, which was founded in Horton, Nova Scotia, by Baptists from Nova Scotia and Queen\'s College in 1838, who will be gathered into the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada (Canadian Baptist Ministries). It was designed to prepare men for the ministry and to supply education for lay members.
In 1838, the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society founded Queen\'s College (named for Queen Victoria). The college began with 21 students in January 1839. The name \"Queen\'s College\" was denied to the Baptist school, so it was renamed \"Acadia College\" in 1841, in reference to the history of the area as an Acadian settlement. Acadia College awarded its first degrees in 1843 and became Acadia University in 1891, established by the Acadia University Act.
The Granville Street Baptist Church (now First Baptist Church Halifax) has played a supporting role throughout its history. Many individuals who have made significant contributions to Acadia University, including the first president John Pryor, were members of the First Baptist Church Halifax congregation.
In 1851, the power of appointing governors was transferred from the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society to the Baptist Convention of the Maritime Provinces.
Charles Osborne Wickenden, an architect, and J.C. Dumaresq designed the Central Building, Acadia College, 1878--79.
Clara Belle Marshall, from Mount Hanley, Nova Scotia, became the first woman to graduate from Acadia University in 1879.
In 1891, there were changes in the Act of Incorporation.
Andrew R. Cobb designed several campus buildings including: Raynor Hall Residence, 1916; and Horton House, designed by Cobb in the Georgian style, and built by James Reid of Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, which was opened in 1915 as Horton Academy. Today, Horton Hall is the home of the Department of Psychology and Research and Graduate Studies. In 1967 Emmerson Hall was converted to classrooms and offices for the School of Education. It is a registered Heritage Property.
Unveiled on 16 August 1963, a wooden and metal organ in Manning Chapel, Acadia University, is dedicated to Acadia University\'s war dead of the First and Second World Wars and the Korean War. A book of remembrance in Manning Chapel, Acadia University was unveiled on 1 March 1998 through the efforts of the Wolfville Historical Society.
In 1966, it terminated its affiliation with the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada (Canadian Baptist Ministries). The denomination maintains nine seats on the university\'s Board of Governors.
Acadia is a laureate of Washington\'s Smithsonian Institution and a part of the permanent research collection of the National Museum of American History. Acadia is also the only Canadian university selected for inclusion in the Education and Academia category of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award.
### Faculty strikes {#faculty_strikes}
Acadia University\'s Board of Governors and members of the Acadia University Faculty Association (AUFA) have ratified a new collective agreement covering the period 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2014. The faculty of Acadia University have been on strike three times in the history of the institution. The first was 24 February to 12 March 2004. The second was 15 October to 5 November 2007. The second strike was resolved after the province\'s labour minister, Mark Parent, appointed a mediator, on 1 November, to facilitate an agreement. The third strike began on 1 February 2022 and ended 1 March 2022 with both sides agreeing to binding arbitration.
## Academics
### Rankings
In *Maclean\'s* 2023 Guide to Canadian Universities, Acadia was ranked fifth in the publication\'s \"primarily undergraduate\" Canadian university category, tied with Bishop\'s University. In the same year, the publication ranked Acadia 33rd, in Maclean\'s reputation survey.
### Faculties
Acadia is organized into four faculties: Arts, Pure & Applied Science, Professional Studies and Theology. Each faculty is further divided into departments and schools specialized in areas of teaching and research.
## Research
Acadia has over 15 research centres and 6 research chairs. Undergraduate students have the opportunity to participate in many research opportunities in a small university setting.
The Division of Research & Graduate Studies is separate from the faculties and oversees graduate students as well as Acadia\'s research programs.
Acadia\'s research programs explore coastal environments, ethno-cultural diversity, social justice, environmental monitoring and climate change, organizational relationships, data mining, the impact of digital technologies, and lifestyle choices contributing to health and wellness. Acadia\'s research centres include the Tidal Energy Institute, the Acadia Institute for Data Analytics, and the Beaubassin Field Station. Applied research opportunities include research with local wineries and grape growers, alternative insect control techniques and technologies.
## Innovation
### Acadia Advantage {#acadia_advantage}
In 1996, Acadia University introduced a new initiative. Named the Acadia Advantage, it integrated the use of notebook computers into the undergraduate curriculum and featured innovations in teaching. By 2000, all full-time, undergraduate Acadia students were taking part in the initiative. The initiative went beyond leasing notebook computers to students during the academic year, and included training, user support and the use of course-specific applications at Acadia.
Acadia is a laureate of Washington\'s Smithsonian Institution and a part of the permanent research collection of the National Museum of American History. It is the only Canadian university selected for inclusion in the Education and Academia category of the Computerworld Smithsonian Award.
In addition, Acadia University received the Pioneer Award for Ubiquitous Computing. In 2001, it achieved high rankings in the annual *Maclean\'s* University Rankings, including Best Overall for Primarily Undergraduate University in their opinion survey, and it received the Canadian Information Productivity Award in 1997 as the first university in Canada to fully utilize information technology in the undergraduate curriculum.
In September 2008, Acadia moved to a student-owned notebook computer version of the Acadia Advantage, now named Acadia Advantage 2.0.
The new Agri-Technology Access Centre in the Innovation Pavilion provides companies and industry organizations with access to specialized technology, lab space, subject-matter expertise and commercialization support services. It also enables Acadia to advance its applied research strength in a priority sector -- agriculture -- and expand its technology transfer and commercialization activities. The Science Complex renewal project was supported by an investment of \$15.98 million by the Federal and Provincial governments.
## Athletics
Acadia\'s sports teams are called the Axemen and Axewomen. They participate in the Atlantic University Sports conference of U Sports.
Men\'s and women\'s varsity teams that have won more conference and national championships than any other institution in Atlantic University Sport. Routinely, more than one-third of Acadia\'s varsity athletes also achieve Academic All-Canadian designation through Canadian Interuniversity Sport by maintaining a minimum average of 80 per cent.
In September 2006, Acadia University announced its partnership with the Wolfville Tritons Swim Club and the Acadia Masters Swim Club to form the Acadia Swim Club and return competitive swimming to the university after a 14-year hiatus. On 26 September 2008, the university announced its intention to return swimming to a varsity status in September 2009.
## Fight song {#fight_song}
Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: *Stand Up and Cheer*, the Acadia University fight song. According to \'Songs of Acadia College\' (Wolfville, NS 1902--3, 1907), the songs include: \'Acadia Centennial Song\' (1938); \'The Acadia Clan Song\'; \'Alma Mater - Acadia;\' \'Alma Mater Acadia\' (1938) and \'Alma Mater Song.\'
## Symbols
In 1974, Acadia was granted a coat of arms designed by the College of Arms in London, England. The coat of arms is two-tone, with the school\'s official colours, garnet and blue, on the shield. The axes represent the school\'s origins in a rural setting, and the determination of its founders who cleared the land and built the school on donated items and labour. The open books represent the intellectual pursuits of a university, and the wolves heads are a whimsical representation of the university\'s location in Wolfville. \"In pulvere vinces\" (In dust you conquer) is the motto.
The university seal depicts the Greek goddess of wisdom Athena in front of the first college hall.
The university also uses a stylized \"A\" as a logo for its sports teams.
Notable among a number of fight songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement, convocation, and athletic games are: the Acadia University alma mater set to the tune of \"Annie Lisle\". The lyrics are: `{{block indent|1=<poem>
Far above the dykes of Fundy
And its basin blue
Stands our noble alma mater
Glorious to view
Lift the chorus
Speed it onward
Sing it loud and free
Hail to thee our alma mater
Acadia, hail to thee
Far above the busy highway
And the sleepy town
Raised against the arch of heaven
Looks she proudly down
</poem>}}`{=mediawiki}
## Historic buildings {#historic_buildings}
Seminary House, also known as just \"Sem\", is a Second Empire style-building constructed in 1878 as a home for women attending the university. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1997 as Canada\'s oldest facility associated with the higher education of women. The building now serves as a co-ed residence, and Whitman House on campus now serves as the women\'s only residence.
Carnegie Hall, built in 1909, is a large, two-storey, Neo-classical brick building. It was designated under the provincial Heritage Property Act in 1989 as its construction in 1909 signified Acadia\'s evolution from classical college to liberal university.
The War Memorial House (more generally known as Barrax or Rax), which is a residence, and War Memorial Gymnasium are landmark buildings on the campus of Acadia University. The Memorial Hall and Gymnasium honours students who had enlisted and died in the First World War, and in the Second World War. Two granite shafts, which are part of the War Memorial Gymnasium complex at Acadia University, are dedicated to the university\'s war dead. The War Memorial House is dedicated to the war dead from Acadia University during the Second World War.
## Student life {#student_life}
At Acadia University, students have access to the Student Union Building which serves as a hub for students and houses many Student Union organizations. The building houses The Axe Lounge, a convenience store, an information desk, two food outlets, and the Sexual Health Resource Centre. The university press, *The Athenaeum* is a member of CUP.
### Student government {#student_government}
All students are represented by the Acadia Students\' Union.
### Residences
Approximately 1500 students live on-campus in 11 residences:
- Chase Court
- Chipman House
- Christofor Hall
- Crowell Tower (13 Story High-rise)
- 55 University Avenue (formerly known as Cutten House, it was temporarily renamed in late 2024 until a new name could be decided. Cutten House was named in honour of a university president who had been in support of segregation and eugenics)
- Dennis House - First floor houses student health services
- Eaton House
- Roy Jodrey Hall
- Seminary House - Also houses the School of Education in lower level
- War Memorial (Barrax) House
- Whitman House (Tully) - All female residence
- Willett House (former residence)
## People
### List of presidents and vice chancellors {#list_of_presidents_and_vice_chancellors}
- John Pryor, 1846--1850
- John Cramp, 1851--1853 (and 1856--1869)
- Edmund Crawley, 1853--1856
- John Cramp, 1856--1869
- Artemas Wyman Sawyer, 1869--1896
- Thomas Trotter, 1897--1906
- W.B. Hutchinson, 1907--1909
- George Barton Cutten, 1910--1922
- Frederic Patterson, 1923--1948
- Watson Kirkconnell, 1948--1964
- James Beveridge, 1964--1978
- Allan Sinclair, 1978--1981
- James Perkin, 1981--1993
- Kelvin Ogilvie, 1993--2004
- Gail Dinter-Gottlieb, 2004--2008
- Tom Herman (Acting President), 2008--2009
- Ray Ivany, 2009 -- 2017
- Peter J Ricketts, 2017 -- 2023
- Jeffrey J Hennessy, 2023
### List of chancellors {#list_of_chancellors}
- Alex Colville, 1981--1991
- William Feindel, 1991--1996
- Arthur Irving, 1996--2010
- Libby Burnham, 2011--2018
- Bruce Galloway, 2018--2024
- Nancy McCain, 2024--present
### Notable alumni {#notable_alumni}
- Edgar Archibald, scientist and politician
- Norman Atkins, Canadian senator
- Solomon Adeniyi Babalola - Nigerian Baptist missionary/evangelist, Church Pastor, Church Administrator, Denominational Leader, and Theological Educator
- Ron Barkhouse, MLA for Lunenburg East (Horton Academy)
- Gordon Lockhart Bennett, Lieutenant-Governor of Prince Edward Island
- Arthur Bourns, President of McMaster University
- Libby Burnham, lawyer, Chancellor of Acadia University
- Bob Cameron, football player
- Dalton Camp, journalist, politician and political strategist
- M. Elizabeth Cannon, University of Calgary President & Vice-Chancellor
- Lillian Chase, physician
- Paul Corkum, physicist and F.R.S.
- John Wallace de Beque Farris, Canadian senator
- Mark Day, actor
- Michael Dick, CBC-TV journalist
- Charles Aubrey Eaton (1868--1953), clergyman and politician
- William Feindel, neurosurgeon
- Dale Frail, astronomer
- Rob Ramsay, actor
- Alexandra Fuller, writer
- Gary Graham, musician, choral conductor
- Matthew Green, Member of Parliament
- Milton Fowler Gregg, VC laureate, politician
- Robbie Harrison, Nova Scotian politician and educator
- Richard Hatfield, Premier of New Brunswick
- Charles Brenton Huggins, Nobel Laureate
- Kenneth Colin Irving, industrialist
- Robert Irving, industrialist
- Ron James, comedian
- Lorie Kane, LPGA golfer
- Gerald Keddy, Member of Parliament
- Joanne Kelly, actress
- Mary Knickle, composer, lyricist, musician
- Kenneth Komoski, educator
- David H. Levy, astronomer
- Peter MacKay, lawyer, Canadian Minister of National Defense
- Henry Poole MacKeen, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia
- Paul Masotti, football player
- Harrison McCain, industrialist
- Donald Oliver, Canadian senator
- Rev. William Pearly Oliver, black minister and educator
- Henry Nicholas Paint (1830--1921), member of Parliament, merchant, landowner,
- Freeman Patterson, photographer, writer
- Robert Pope, visual artist author
- Keith R. Porter, cell biologist
- Heather Rankin, singer-songwriter, member of The Rankin Family
- Perry F. Rockwood, radio evangelist
- Erin Roger, scientist
- Jacob Gould Schurman, President of Cornell University
- Roger Tomlinson (1933--2014), geographer and \"The Father of GIS\"
- Rev. William A. White, black minister and missionary
- Lance Woolaver, playwright
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2,237 |
Steel-string acoustic guitar
|
The **steel-string acoustic guitar** is a modern form of guitar that descends from the gut-strung Romantic guitar, but is strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound. Like the modern classical guitar, it is often referred to simply as an **acoustic guitar**, or sometimes as a **folk guitar**.
The most common type is often called a flat top guitar, to distinguish it from the more specialized archtop guitar and other variations.
The standard tuning for an acoustic guitar is E-A-D-G-B-E (low to high), although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings (scordatura), such as open G (D-G-D-G-B-D), open D (D-A-D-F`{{music|sharp}}`{=mediawiki}-A-D), drop D (D-A-D-G-B-E), or D-A-D-G-A-D (particularly in Irish traditional music).
## Construction
Steel-string guitars vary in construction and materials. Different woods and approach to bracing affect the instrument\'s timbre or tone. While there is little scientific evidence, many players and luthiers believe a well-made guitar\'s tone improves over time. They theorize that a decrease in the content of hemicellulose, crystallization of cellulose, and changes to lignin over time all result in its wood gaining better resonating properties.
### Types
Steel-string acoustic guitars are commonly constructed in several body types, varying in size, depth, and proportion. In general, the guitar\'s soundbox can be thought of as composed of two mating chambers: the *upper bouts* (a *bout* being the rounded corner of an instrument body) on the neck end of the body, and *lower bouts* (on the bridge end). These meet at the *waist,* or the narrowest part of the body face near the soundhole. The proportion and overall size of these two parts helps determine the overall tonal balance and \"native sound\" of a particular body style -- the larger the body, the louder the volume.
- The *parlor*, *00*, *double-O*, or *grand concert* body type is the major body style most directly derived from the classical guitar. It has the thinnest soundbox and the smallest overall size, making it very comfortable to play but lacking in volume projection relative to the larger types. Its smaller size makes it suitable for younger or smaller-framed players. It is well-suited to smaller rooms. Martin\'s 00-xxx series and Taylor\'s x12 series are common examples.
- The *grand auditorium* guitar, sometimes called the *000* or the *triple-O* is very similar in design to the grand concert, but slightly wider and deeper. Many 000-style guitars also have a convex back to increase the physical volume of the soundbox without making it deeper at the edges, which would affect comfort and playability. The result is a very balanced tone, comparable to the 00 but with greater volume and dynamic range and slightly more low-end response, making this body style very popular. Eric Clapton\'s signature Martin, for example, is of this style. Martin\'s 000-xxx series and Taylor\'s x14 series are well-known examples of the grand auditorium style.
- The *dreadnought* is a large-bodied guitar which incorporates a deeper soundbox, but a smaller and less-pronounced upper bout than most styles. Its size and power gave rise to its name, taken from the most formidable class of warship at the time of its creation in the early 20th century. The style was designed by C. F. Martin & Company. to produce a deeper sound than \"classic\"-style guitars, with very resonant bass. Its body\'s combination of compact profile with a deep sound has since been copied by virtually every major steel-string luthier, making it the most popular body type. Martin\'s \"D\" series guitars, such as the highly prized D-28, are classic examples of the dreadnought.
- The *jumbo* body type is bigger again than a grand auditorium but similarly proportioned, and is generally designed to provide a deep tone similar to a dreadnought\'s. It was designed by Gibson to compete with the dreadnought, but with maximum resonant space for greater volume and sustain. These come at the expense of being oversized, with a very deep sounding box, and thus somewhat more difficult to play. The foremost example of the style is the Gibson J-200, but like the dreadnought, most guitar manufacturers have at least one jumbo model.
Any of these body type can incorporate a *cutaway*, where a section of the upper bout below the neck is scalloped out. This allows for easier access to the frets located atop the soundbox, at the expense of reduced soundbox volume and altered bracing, which can affect the resonant qualities and resulting tone of the instrument.
All of these relatively traditional looking and constructed instruments are commonly referred to as *flattop* guitars. All are commonly used in popular music genres, including rock, blues, country, and folk.
Other styles of guitar which enjoy moderate popularity, generally in more specific genres, include:
- The *archtop*, which incorporates an arched, violin-like top either carved out of solid wood or heat-pressed using laminations. It usually has violin style f-holes rather than a single round sound hole. It is most commonly used by swing and jazz players and often incorporates an electric pickup.
- The *Selmer-Maccaferri guitar* is usually played by those who follow the style of Django Reinhardt. It is an unusual-looking instrument, distinguished by a fairly large body with squarish bouts, and either a D-shaped or longitudinal oval soundhole. The strings are gathered at the tail like an archtop guitar, but the top is flatter. It also has a wide fingerboard and slotted head like a nylon-string guitar. The loud volume and penetrating tone make it suitable for single-note soloing, and it is frequently employed as a lead instrument in gypsy swing.
- The *resonator guitar*, also called the *Dobro* after its most prominent manufacturer, amplifies its sound through one or more metal cone-shaped resonators. It was designed to overcome the problem of conventional acoustic guitars being overwhelmed by horns and percussion instruments in dance orchestras. It became prized for its distinctive sound, however, and gained a place in several musical styles (most notably blues and bluegrass), and retains a niche well after the proliferation of electric amplification.
- The *12-string guitar* replaces each string with a course of two strings. The lower pairs are tuned an octave apart. Its unique sound was made famous by artists such as Lead Belly, Pete Seeger and Leo Kottke.
### Tonewoods
Traditionally, steel-string guitars have been made of a combination of various *tonewoods*, or woods considered to have pleasing resonant qualities when used in instrument-making. The term is ill-defined and the wood species that are considered tonewoods have evolved throughout history. Foremost for making steel-string guitar tops are Sitka spruce, the most common, and Alpine and Adirondack spruce. The back and sides of a particular guitar are typically made of the same wood; Brazilian rosewood, East Indian rosewood, and Honduras mahogany are traditional choices, however, maple has been prized for the figuring that can be seen when it is cut in a certain way (such as *flame* and *quilt* patterns). A common non-traditional wood gaining popularity is sapele, which is tonally similar to mahogany but slightly lighter in color and possessing a deep grain structure that is visually appealing.
Due to decreasing availability and rising prices of premium-quality traditional tonewoods, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternative species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with red cedar or mahogany tops, or with spruce variants other than Sitka. Cedar is also common in the back and sides, as is basswood. Entry-level models, especially those made in East Asia, often use nato wood, which is again tonally similar to mahogany but is cheap to acquire. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as plastic or graphite. Carbon-fiber and phenolic composite materials have become desirable for building necks, and some high-end luthiers produce all-carbon-fiber guitars.
### Assembly
The steel-string acoustic guitar evolved from the gut-string Romantic guitar, and because steel strings have higher tension, heavier construction is required overall. One innovation is a metal bar called a truss rod, which is incorporated into the neck to strengthen it and provide adjustable counter-tension to the stress of the strings. Typically, a steel-string acoustic guitar is built with a larger soundbox than a standard classical guitar. A critical structural and tonal component of an acoustic guitar is the bracing, a systems of struts glued to the inside of the back and top. Steel-string guitars use different bracing systems from classical guitars, typically using X-bracing instead of fan bracing. (Another simpler system, called ladder bracing, where the braces are all placed across the width of the instrument, is used on all types of flat-top guitars on the back.) Innovations in bracing design have emerged, notably the A-brace developed by British luthier Roger Bucknall of Fylde Guitars.
Most luthiers and experienced players agree that a good solid top (as opposed to laminated or plywood) is the most important factor in the tone of the guitar. Solid backs and sides can also contribute to a pleasant sound, although laminated sides and backs are acceptable alternatives, commonly found in mid-level guitars (in the range of US\$300--\$1000).
From the 1960s through the 1980s, \"by far the most significant developments in the design and construction of acoustic guitars\" were made by the Ovation Guitar Company. It introduced a composite *roundback* bowl, which replaced the square back and sides of traditional guitars; because of its engineering design, Ovation guitars could be amplified without producing the obnoxious feedback that had plagued acoustic guitars before. Ovation also pioneered with electronics, such as pickup systems and electronic tuners.\* `{{cite news|date=1 October 2004|title=Ovation's encore: How a host of product refinements have rekindled growth at Kaman Music's flagship guitar division|series=The Guitar Market|newspaper=[[The Music Trades]]|access-date=1 May 2012|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-124136480.html|archive-date=28 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228012553/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-124136480.html|url-status=dead}}`{=mediawiki}
-
-
-
## Amplification
A steel-string guitar can be `{{em|amplified}}`{=mediawiki} using any of three techniques:
- a microphone, possibly clipped to the guitar body;
- a detachable pickup, often straddling the soundhole and using the same magnetic principle as a traditional electric guitar; or
- a transducer built into the body.
The last type of guitar is commonly called an *acoustic-electric guitar* as it can be played either \"unplugged\" as an acoustic, or plugged in as an electric. The most common type is a piezoelectric pickup, which is composed of a thin sandwich of quartz crystal. When compressed, the crystal produces a small electric current, so when placed under the bridge saddle, the vibrations of the strings through the saddle, and of the body of the instrument, are converted to a weak electrical signal. This signal is often sent to a pre-amplifier, which increases the signal strength and normally incorporates an equalizer. The output of the preamplifier then goes to a separate amplifier system similar to that for an electric guitar.
Several manufacturers produce specialised acoustic guitar amplifiers, which are designed to give undistorted and full-range reproduction.
## Music and players {#music_and_players}
Until the 1960s, the predominant forms of music played on the flat-top, steel-string guitar remained relatively stable and included acoustic blues, country, bluegrass, folk, and several genres of rock. The concept of playing solo steel-string guitar in a concert setting was introduced in the early 1960s by such performers as Davey Graham and John Fahey, who used country blues fingerpicking techniques to compose original compositions with structures somewhat like European classical music. Fahey contemporary Robbie Basho added elements of Indian classical music and Leo Kottke used a Faheyesque approach to make the first solo steel-string guitar \"hit\" record.
Steel-string guitars are also important in the world of flatpicking, as utilized by such artists as Clarence White, Tony Rice, Bryan Sutton, Doc Watson and David Grier. Luthiers have been experimenting with redesigning the acoustic guitar for these players. These flat-top, steel-string guitars are constructed and voiced more for classical-like fingerpicking and less for chordal accompaniment (strumming). Some luthiers have increasingly focused their attention on the needs of fingerstylists and have developed unique guitars for this style of playing.
Many other luthiers attempt to recreate the guitars of the \"Golden Era\" of C.F. Martin & Co. This was started by Roy Noble, who built the guitar played by Clarence White from 1968 to 1972, and was followed by Bill Collings, Marty Lanham, Dana Bourgeois, Randy Lucas, Lynn Dudenbostel and Wayne Henderson, a few of the luthiers building guitars today inspired by vintage Martins, the pre--World War II models in particular. As prices for vintage Martins continue to rise exponentially, upscale guitar enthusiasts have demanded faithful recreations and luthiers are working to fill that demand.
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Antipope John XXIII
|
**Baldassarre Cossa** (died 22 December 1419) was Pisan antipope as **John XXIII** (1410--1415) during the Western Schism. The Catholic Church today regards him as an antipope in opposition to Pope Gregory XII, whom it recognizes as the rightful successor of Saint Peter. John XXIII was also an opponent of Benedict XIII, who was recognized by the French clergy and monarchy as the legitimate pope.
Historically, the *Annuario Pontificio* recognized John XXIII the legitimate successor of Saint Peter. However, the Western Schism was reinterpreted in 1958 when Pope John XXIII chose to reuse the ordinal XXIII, which is now reflected in modern editions of the *Annuario Pontificio*. John XXIII is now considered to be an antipope and Gregory XII\'s reign is recognized to have extended until 1415.
Cossa was born in the Kingdom of Naples. In 1403, he served as a papal legate in Romagna. He participated in the Council of Pisa in 1408, which sought to end the Western Schism with the election of a third alternative pope. In 1410, he succeeded Antipope Alexander V, taking the name John XXIII. At the instigation of King Sigismund of Germany, John XXIII called the Council of Constance of 1413, which deposed both John XXIII and Benedict XIII, accepted Gregory XII\'s resignation, and elected Pope Martin V to replace them, thus ending the schism. John XXIII was tried for various crimes, though later accounts question the veracity of those accusations. Towards the end of his life, Cossa restored his relationship with the Church and was made Cardinal Bishop of Frascati by Pope Martin V.
## Early life {#early_life}
Baldassarre Cossa was born on the island of Procida in the Kingdom of Naples, the son of Giovanni Cossa, lord of Procida. Initially he followed a military career, taking part in the Angevin-Neapolitan war. His two brothers were sentenced to death for piracy by Ladislaus of Naples.
He studied law at the University of Bologna and obtained doctorates in both civil and canon law. Probably at the prompting of his family, in 1392 he entered the service of Pope Boniface IX, first working in Bologna and then in Rome. (The Western Schism had begun in 1378, and there were two competing popes at the time, one in Avignon supported by France and Spain, and one in Rome, supported by most of Italy, Germany and England.) In 1386 he is listed as canon of the cathedral of Bologna. In 1396, he became archdeacon in Bologna. He became Cardinal deacon of Saint Eustachius in 1402 and Papal legate in Romagna in 1403. Johann Peter Kirsch describes Cossa as \"utterly worldly-minded, ambitious, crafty, unscrupulous, and immoral, a good soldier but no churchman\". At this time Cossa also had some links with local robber bands, which were often used to intimidate his rivals and attack carriages. These connections added to his influence and power in the region.
## Role in the Western Schism {#role_in_the_western_schism}
### Council of Pisa {#council_of_pisa}
Cardinal Cossa was one of the seven cardinals who, in May 1408, withdrew their allegiance from Pope Gregory XII, stating that he had broken his solemn oath not to create new cardinals without consulting them in advance. In company with those cardinals who had been following Antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, they convened the Council of Pisa, of which Cossa became a leading figure. The aim of the council was to end the schism; to this end they deposed both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII and elected a new pope Alexander V in 1409. Gregory and Benedict ignored this decision, however, so that there were now three simultaneous claimants to the papacy.
### Election to the papacy {#election_to_the_papacy}
Alexander suddenly died while he was with Cardinal Baldassare Cossa at Bologna on the night of 3--4 May 1410. On 25 May 1410, Cossa was consecrated a pope taking the name John XXIII. He had become an ordained bishop only one day earlier. John XXIII was acknowledged as pope by France, England, Bohemia, Portugal, parts of the Holy Roman Empire, and numerous Northern Italian city states, including Florence and Venice and the Patriarchate of Aquileia; and in the beginning and in 1411--1413 by Hungary and Poland. However, the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII was regarded as pope by the Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Sicily and Scotland. Gregory XII was still favored by Ladislaus of Naples, Carlo I Malatesta, the princes of Bavaria, Louis III, Elector Palatine, and parts of Germany and Poland. John XXIII made the Medici Bank the bank of the papacy, contributing considerably to the family\'s wealth and prestige.
The main enemy of John was Ladislaus of Naples, who protected Gregory XII in Rome. Following his election as pope, John spent a year in Bologna and then joined forces with Louis II of Anjou to march against Ladislaus. An initial victory proved short-lived and Ladislaus retook Rome in May 1413, forcing John to flee to Florence. In Florence he met Sigismund, King of the Romans. Sigismund wanted to end the schism and urged John to call a general council. John did so with hesitation, at first trying to have the council held in Italy (rather than in a German Imperial City, as Sigismund wanted). The Council of Constance was convened on 30 October 1414. During the third session, rival Pope Gregory XII authorized the council as well. The council resolved that all three popes should abdicate and a new pope be elected.
### Flight from the Council of Constance {#flight_from_the_council_of_constance}
In March, John escaped from Constance disguised as a postman. According to the Klingenberger Chronicle, written by a noble client of Frederick IV, Duke of Austria, John XXIII traveled down the Rhine to Schaffhausen in a boat, while Frederick accompanied him with a small band of men on horseback. There was a huge outcry in Constance when it was discovered that John had fled, and Sigismund was furious about this setback to his plans for ending the Schism. The King of the Romans issued orders to all the powers on the Upper Rhine and in Swabia stating that he had declared Frederick to be an outlaw and that his lands and possessions were forfeit. In due course this led to a great deal of political upheaval and many Austrian losses in the region, notably in Aargau to the Swiss Confederation.
In the meantime, Antipope John XXIII and Frederick fled further downriver along the Rhine to the town of Freiburg im Breisgau, which recognised the duke of Austria as its lord. There Sigismund\'s lieutenant Ludwig III, Elector Palatine caught up with them. He convinced Frederick that he stood to lose too much by harbouring the fugitive pope, and the Austrian duke agreed to give himself and John up and return to Constance.
### Deposition
During his absence, John was deposed by the council, and upon his return he was tried for heresy, simony, schism and immorality, and found guilty on all counts. The 18th century historian Edward Gibbon wrote, \"The more scandalous charges were suppressed; the vicar of Christ was accused only of piracy, rape, sodomy, murder and incest.\" John was given over to Ludwig III, Elector Palatine, who imprisoned him for several months in Heidelberg and Mannheim.
The last remaining claimant in Avignon, Benedict XIII, refused to resign and was excommunicated. Martin V was elected as new pope in 1417.
## Death and burial {#death_and_burial}
Cossa was freed in 1418 after a heavy ransom was paid by the Medici. He went to Florence, where he submitted to Martin V, who made him Cardinal Bishop of Frascati. Cossa died only a few months later.
The Medici oversaw the construction of his magnificent tomb by Donatello and Michelozzo in the Battistero di San Giovanni in Florence. Pope Martin V protested in vain against the inscription on the sarcophagus: \"John the former pope\".
J.P. Kirsch remarks that \"Undeniably secular and ambitious, his moral life was not above reproach, and his unscrupulous methods in no wise accorded with the requirements of his high office \... the heinous crimes of which his opponents in the council accused him were certainly gravely exaggerated.\" One historian concluded that John was \"a great man in temporal things, but a complete failure and worthless in spiritual things\".
## Fictional depictions {#fictional_depictions}
John is portrayed by Steven Waddington in the 2016 television series *Medici: Masters of Florence*.
The 1932 thriller *Safe Custody* by Dornford Yates, references John. Listing the members of an objectionable family, a character in the story says, \"Then we come to his nephew---a promising lad of fifteen. He lies, steals, smells, assaults the servants and abuses any animal which he is satisfied will not retaliate. If Gibbon may be believed, Pope John the Twenty-third as a stripling must have resembled him\".
In 1983, American political satirist and novelist Richard Condon wrote *A Trembling Upon Rome*, a novel of historical fiction about the life of Baldassare Cossa.
Russian writer Dmitry Balashov wrote the novel *Baltazar Kossa* (*Бальтазар Косса*) about Antipope John XXIII.
## Numbering issues {#numbering_issues}
He should not be confused with Pope John XXIII of the twentieth century. When Angelo Roncalli was elected pope in 1958, there was some confusion as to whether he would be *John XXIII* or *John XXIV*; he then declared that he was John XXIII to put this question to rest. There was no John XX, since that number was skipped due to an error by Medieval Pope John XXI; this is why Gibbon refers to the antipope John as John XXII.
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2,244 |
Cobble Hill Tunnel
|
The **Cobble Hill Tunnel** (also known as the **Atlantic Avenue Tunnel**) is an abandoned Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) tunnel beneath Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, New York City, running through the neighborhoods of Downtown Brooklyn and Cobble Hill. When open, it ran for about 2517 ft between Columbia Street and Boerum Place. It is the oldest railway tunnel beneath a city street in North America that was fully devoted to rail. It is also deemed the oldest subway tunnel in the world by the *Guinness Book of World Records*.
## Construction and operation {#construction_and_operation}
Originally built as an open cut, construction began in May 1844, and opened for use on December 3, 1844, but was not completely finished until mid-1845. It was built mainly to satisfy public demand for creation of a grade-separated right of way for the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad (later Long Island Rail Road) on its way to the South Ferry at the foot of Atlantic Street (later Atlantic Avenue), where passengers could catch ferries to Manhattan. The construction of the cut also lowered the LIRR\'s grade through Cobble Hill. Around five years after opening the cut was roofed over, converting it into a tunnel. As originally built, the cut was 21 ft wide and 2517 ft long. Once roofed over, the interior height of the newly created tunnel was 17 ft.
In exchange for building the cut, the City of Brooklyn granted the B&J permission to operate its steam locomotives on Atlantic Street west of Fifth Avenue (then Parmentier\'s Garden/Gowanus Lane), all the way to Brooklyn\'s South Ferry (the present location of Brooklyn\'s Pier 7). Prior to the cut being built, the LIRR\'s western terminus was Atlantic Street at Clinton Street. Train cars were hauled by teams of horses along Atlantic Street from Clinton Street to Parmentier\'s Garden, where steam locomotives were attached. While the cut was being built, the railroad operated to a temporary terminal at Pacific Street and Henry Street.
The Cobble Hill Tunnel was part of the first rail link between New York City and Boston, Massachusetts. The railroad connected Lower Manhattan via the South Ferry to Greenport on the North Fork of Long Island; a ferry connected Greenport to Stonington, Connecticut, where a rail link continued to Boston. This avoided some difficult construction of bridges over the rivers of southern Connecticut. In 1848, the New York and New Haven Railroad Line was completed through Connecticut, providing a direct, faster rail connection from New York City to Boston. The Cobble Hill Tunnel and the Long Island Railroad remained the primary means of access to most of central Long Island from Manhattan and New York City.
The ends of the tunnel were sealed in the fall of 1861. The similar Murray Hill Tunnel on the New York and Harlem Railroad was built as an open cut around 1836, roofed over around the 1850s, and is now in use for automobile traffic.
## Closure controversy {#closure_controversy}
In 1861, the New York State Legislature voted to ban railroad locomotives from within the limits of the City of Brooklyn. A tax assessment was ordered on all property owners along Atlantic Street (today Atlantic Avenue), to defray the costs of the closure. It was undisclosed at the time that New York State Governor John A. King was a major shareholder in the Brooklyn and Jamaica Railroad (later the Long Island Rail Road) and therefore had a conflict of interest and stood to benefit by the compensation payments to the railroad from the tax assessment.
## Dormancy
Walt Whitman wrote of the tunnel:
> The old tunnel, that used to lie there under ground, a passage of Acheron-like solemnity and darkness, now all closed and filled up, and soon to be utterly forgotten, with all its reminiscences; however, there will, for a few years yet be many dear ones, to not a few Brooklynites, New Yorkers, and promiscuous crowds besides. For it was here you started to go down the island, in summer. For years, it was confidently counted on that this spot, and the railroad of which it was the terminus, were going to prove the permanent seat of business and wealth that belong to such enterprises. But its glory, after enduring in great splendor for a season, has now vanished---at least its Long Island Railroad glory has. The tunnel: dark as the grave, cold, damp, and silent. How beautiful look earth and heaven again, as we emerge from the gloom! It might not be unprofitable, now and then, to send us mortals---the dissatisfied ones, at least, and that\'s a large proportion---into some tunnel of several days\' journey. We\'d perhaps grumble less, afterward, at God\'s handiwork.
In March 1916, the Bureau of Investigation suspected German terrorists were making bombs in the tunnel, and broke through the roof of the tunnel with jackhammers. They found nothing, installed an electric light, and resealed it. In the 1920s, it was rumored to be used for both mushroom growing and bootleg whiskey stills, even though there was no access into the main portion of the tunnel. It became an object of local folklore and legend. In 1936, the New York City Police Department unsuccessfully attempted to enter the tunnel, in order to look for the body of a hoodlum supposedly buried there. In 1941, it was rumored to have been inspected by the federal Works Progress Administration to determine its structural strength, but there is no evidence of this. A few years later, it was once again rumored to have been opened, this time by the FBI, in an unsuccessful search for spies; however, there is no evidence of this. During the late 1950s, it was sought by two rail historians, George Horn and Martin Schachne, but they did not gain access to the tunnel itself.
## Rediscovery
Having fallen from public notice, the tunnel was rediscovered in 1980 by then 20-year-old Bob Diamond, who entered from a manhole he located at Atlantic Avenue and Court Street, crawled a distance of 70 ft underground through a filled-in section of tunnel less than 2 ft high, and located the bulkhead wall that sealed off the main portion of the tunnel. With the assistance of a Brooklyn Union Gas Company engineering crew, he then broke through the massive concrete bulkhead wall, which is several feet thick. Diamond thereby opened access to the main portion of the tunnel, and began to popularize the tunnel as an antiquity. He led tours of its interior for his Brooklyn Historic Railway Association, from 1982 until December 17, 2010, when the Department of Transportation terminated his contract, citing safety concerns. The tunnel has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1989.
The History Channel series *Cities of the Underworld* ran a segment (\"New York\'s Secret Societies\") on the tunnel in 2008.
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Annapolis Valley
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The **Annapolis Valley** is a valley and region in the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. It is located in the western part of the Nova Scotia peninsula, formed by a trough between two parallel mountain ranges along the shore of the Bay of Fundy. Statistics Canada defines the Annapolis Valley as an economic region, composed of Annapolis County, Kings County, and Hants County.
## Geography
The valley measures approximately 126 km in length from Annapolis Royal and the Annapolis Basin in the west to Wolfville and the Minas Basin in the east, spanning the counties of Digby, Annapolis and Kings.
Some also include the western part of Hants County, including the towns of Hantsport and Windsor even further to the east, but geographically speaking they are part of the Avon River valley.
The steep face of basaltic North Mountain shelters the valley from the adjacent Bay of Fundy and rises over 260 m in elevation near Lawrencetown. The granitic South Mountain rises to a somewhat higher elevation and shelters the valley from the climate of the Atlantic Ocean approximately 100 kilometres further south on the province\'s South Shore.
The shelter provided by these two mountainous ridges has produced a microclimate which provides relatively mild temperatures for the region and, coupled with the fertile glacial sedimentary soils on the valley floor, the region is conducive to growing vegetable and fruit crops. Particularly famous for its apple crop, the valley hosts in excess of 1,000 farms of various types, the majority being relatively small family-owned operations.
Within the valley itself are two major rivers, the Annapolis River which flows west from Caribou Bog in the central part of the valley into Annapolis Basin, and the Cornwallis River which flows east from Caribou Bog into Minas Basin. The North Mountain ridge forms the north side of the Annapolis Valley. Also flowing east, in two smaller valleys north of the Cornwallis River, are the Canard River and the Habitant River, both of which also flow into the Minas Basin.
## History
Long settled by the Mi\'kmaq nation, the valley experienced French settlement at the Habitation at Port-Royal, near modern-day Annapolis Royal in the western part of the valley, beginning in 1605. From there, the Acadians spread throughout the Valley, in various communities, building dykes to claim the tidal lands along the Annapolis and Cornwallis Rivers. They continued throughout the Annapolis Valley until the British-ordered expulsion of Acadians in 1755 which is memorialized at Grand-Pré in the eastern part of the valley. New England Planters moved in to occupy the abandoned Acadian farming areas and the region also saw subsequent settlement by Loyalist refugees of the American Revolutionary War, as well as foreign Protestants. These were followed by significant numbers of freed Africans in the War of 1812, Irish immigrants in the mid-19th century and Dutch immigrants after World War II. Agriculture in the Annapolis valley boomed in the late 19th century with the arrival of the Windsor and Annapolis Railway, later the Dominion Atlantic Railway, which developed large export markets for Annapolis Valley apples.
The Annapolis Valley Regional Library was established in 1949. It was the first regional library system in Nova Scotia.
## Economy
The Valley has traditionally been built on a diversified agricultural industry, with a wide range of output ranging from livestock to fruit trees and berries. The last quarter-century has also seen the development of a wine industry, with such notable wineries as Gaspereau Vineyards winning national and international awards for their produce.
Today, the Valley is still largely dominated by agriculture but also has a growing diversity in its economies, partly aided by the importance of post-secondary education centres provided by Acadia University in Wolfville, and the Nova Scotia Community College campuses located in Kentville, Middleton, Lawrencetown, and Digby.
Michelin has an important truck tire manufacturing plant in Waterville and the Department of National Defence has its largest air force base in Atlantic Canada located at CFB Greenwood along with an important training facility at Camp Aldershot, near Kentville.
Tourism is also an important industry and the Annapolis Valley is known for its scenic farmland, although today some is threatened with suburban development in the eastern end, and a great deal has been abandoned. The valley also struggles with pollution from farm runoffs and residential sewers in its two major rivers, the Annapolis River and the Cornwallis River. The Annapolis Valley additionally has become home to the majority of Nova Scotia wineries, located in either the Gaspereau Valley or in the Canning, Grand Pré, or Bear River areas.
The Valley is home to the annual Apple Blossom Festival, held in late spring. In July is the annual Steer Bar-B-Que in Kingston, and Heart of the Valley Festival in Middleton. August sees Mud Creek Days in Wolfville and the Annapolis Valley Exhibition in Lawrencetown. Bridgetown\'s Cider Festival comes in mid-September. The Canadian Deep Roots Music Festival is held each year at the end of September in Wolfville, a community-based festival, supported by both the Town of Wolfville and Acadia University and built by over 100 volunteers, and on in-kind and financial support from virtually all sectors of the Valley community. Late October sees Wolfville and Kings County play host to Devour! The Food Film Fest, an annual international film festival celebrating all things culinary. Farmers markets in Annapolis Royal, Bridgetown, Middleton, Kentville, Kingsport, Berwick and Wolfville bring a produce and other goods to the public every week. In the fall, there is the Pumpkin People in Kentville.
## Communities
Communities in the Valley from west to east include: `{{colbegin}}`{=mediawiki}
- Digby
- Cornwallis
- Annapolis Royal
- Bridgetown
- Lawrencetown
- Middleton
- Greenwood
- Kingston
- Auburn
- Aylesford
- Berwick
- Waterville
- Cambridge
- Coldbrook
- Kentville
- New Minas
- Canning
- Wolfville
- Grand-Pré
- Glooscap
- Hantsport
- Mount Denson
- Falmouth
- Windsor
- Mount Uniacke
- Rawdon
- East Hants
- Nine Mile River
- Elmsdale
- Milford
## Notable residents {#notable_residents}
- William Hall (1827--1904), the first Black person, first Nova Scotian, and the third Canadian to receive the Victoria Cross
- Benjamin Jackson (1835--1915), Black Nova Scotian sailor, farmer, and decorated veteran of the American Civil War
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Apple II (original)
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The **Apple II** (stylized as `{{nowrap|'''apple ]['''}}`{=mediawiki}) is a personal computer released by Apple Inc. in June 1977. It was one of the first successful mass-produced microcomputer products and is widely regarded as one of the most important personal computers of all time due to its role in popularizing home computing and influencing later software development.
The Apple II was designed primarily by Steve Wozniak. The system is based around the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. Jerry Manock designed the foam-molded plastic case, Rod Holt developed the switching power supply, while Steve Jobs was not involved in the design of the computer. It was introduced by Jobs and Wozniak at the 1977 West Coast Computer Faire, and marks Apple\'s first launch of a computer aimed at a consumer market---branded toward American households rather than businessmen or computer hobbyists.
*Byte* magazine referred to the Apple II, Commodore PET 2001, and TRS-80 as the \"1977 Trinity\". As the Apple II had the defining feature of being able to display color graphics, the Apple logo was redesigned to have a spectrum of colors.
The Apple II was the first in a series of computers collectively referred to by the Apple II name. It was followed by the Apple II+, Apple IIe, Apple IIc, Apple IIc Plus, and the 16-bit Apple IIGS---all of which remained compatible. Production of the last available model, the Apple IIe, ceased in November 1993.
## History
By 1976, Steve Jobs had convinced product designer Jerry Manock (who had formerly worked at Hewlett Packard designing calculators) to create the \"shell\" for the Apple II---a smooth case inspired by kitchen appliances that concealed the internal mechanics. The earliest Apple II computers were assembled in Silicon Valley and later in Texas; printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore. The first computers went on sale on June 10, 1977 with an MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor running at 1.023 MHz (`{{frac|2|7}}`{=mediawiki} of the NTSC color subcarrier), two game paddles (bundled until 1980, when they were found to violate FCC regulations), 4 KiB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into ROMs. The video controller displayed 24 lines by 40 columns of monochrome, uppercase-only text on the screen (the original character set matches ASCII characters 20~h~ to 5F~h~), with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a video monitor or on a regular TV set (by way of a separate RF modulator).
The original retail price of the computer with 4 KiB of RAM was `{{US$|1298|1977|round=-1}}`{=mediawiki} and with the maximum 48 KiB of RAM, it was `{{US$|2638|1977|round=-1}}`{=mediawiki} To reflect the computer\'s color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing has rainbow stripes, which remained a part of Apple\'s corporate logo until early 1998. Perhaps most significantly, the Apple II was a catalyst for personal computers across many industries; it opened the doors to software marketed at consumers.
Certain aspects of the system\'s design were influenced by Atari, Inc.\'s arcade video game *Breakout* (1976), which was designed by Wozniak, who said: \"A lot of features of the Apple II went in because I had designed *Breakout* for Atari. I had designed it in hardware. I wanted to write it in software now\". This included his design of color graphics circuitry, the addition of game paddle support and sound, and graphics commands in Integer BASIC, with which he wrote *Brick Out*, a software clone of his own hardware game. Wozniak said in 1984: \"Basically, all the game features were put in just so I could show off the game I was familiar with---*Breakout*---at the Homebrew Computer Club. It was the most satisfying day of my life \[when\] I demonstrated *Breakout*---totally written in BASIC. It seemed like a huge step to me. After designing hardware arcade games, I knew that being able to program them in BASIC was going to change the world.\"
## Overview
In the May 1977 issue of *Byte*, Steve Wozniak published a detailed description of his design; the article began, \"To me, a personal computer should be small, reliable, convenient to use, and inexpensive.\"
The Apple II used peculiar engineering shortcuts to save hardware and reduce costs, such as:
- Taking advantage of the way the 6502 processor accesses memory: it occurs only on alternate phases of the clock cycle; video generation circuitry memory access on the otherwise unused phase avoids memory contention issues and interruptions of the video stream;
- This arrangement simultaneously eliminated the need for a separate refresh circuit for DRAM chips, as video transfer accessed each row of dynamic memory within the timeout period. In addition, it did not require separate RAM chips for video RAM, while the PET and TRS-80 had SRAM chips for video;
- Apart from the 6502 CPU and a few support chips, the vast majority of the semiconductors used were 74LS low-power Schottky chips;
- Rather than use a complex analog-to-digital circuit to read the outputs of the game controller, Wozniak used a simple timer circuit, built around a quad 555 timer IC called a 558, whose period is proportional to the resistance of the game controller, and he used a software loop to measure the timers;
- A single 14.31818 MHz master oscillator (f~M~) was divided by various ratios to produce all other required frequencies, including microprocessor clock signals (f~M~/14), video transfer counters, and color-burst samples (f~M~/4). A solderable jumper on the main board allowed to switch between European 50 Hz and USA 60 Hz video.
The text and graphics screens have a complex arrangement. For instance, the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory. This complexity was reportedly due to Wozniak\'s realization that the method would allow for the refresh of dynamic RAM as a side effect (as described above). This method had no cost overhead to have software calculate or look up the address of the required scanline and avoided the need for significant extra hardware. Similarly, in high-resolution graphics mode, color is determined by pixel position and thus can be implemented in software, saving Wozniak the chips needed to convert bit patterns to colors. This also allowed the ability to draw text with subpixel rendering, since orange and blue pixels appear half a pixel-width farther to the right on the screen than green and purple pixels.
The Apple II at first used data cassette storage, like most other microcomputers of the time. In 1978, the company introduced an external `{{frac|5|1|4}}`{=mediawiki}-inch floppy disk drive, called Disk II (stylized as Disk \]\[), attached through a controller card that plugs into one of the computer\'s expansion slots (usually slot 6). The Disk II interface, created by Wozniak, is regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components.
The approach taken in the Disk II controller is typical of Wozniak\'s designs. With a few small-scale logic chips and a cheap PROM (programmable read-only memory), he created a functional floppy disk interface at a fraction of the component cost of standard circuit configurations.
## Case design {#case_design}
The first production Apple II computers had hand-molded cases; these had visible bubbles and other lumps in them from the imperfect plastic molding process, which was soon switched to machine molding. In addition, the initial case design had no vent openings, causing high heat buildup from the printed circuit board (PCB) and resulting in the plastic softening and sagging. Apple added vent holes to the case within three months of production; customers with the original case could have them replaced at no charge.
## PCB revisions {#pcb_revisions}
The Apple II\'s printed circuit board (PCB) underwent several revisions, as Steve Wozniak made modifications to it. The earliest version was known as Revision 0, and the first 6,000 units shipped used it. Later revisions added a \"color killer\" circuit to prevent color fringing when the computer was in text mode, as well as modifications to improve the reliability of cassette I/O. Revision 0 Apple IIs powered up in an undefined mode and had garbage on-screen, requiring the user to press Reset. This was eliminated in later board revisions. Revision 0 Apple IIs could display only four colors in hi-res mode, but Wozniak was able to increase this to six hi-res colors on later board revisions. (Technically it was eight, but only six were visible.)
Apple II PCBs have three RAM banks for a total of 24 RAM chips. Original Apple IIs had jumper switches to adjust RAM size, and RAM configurations could be 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 36, or 48 KiB. The three smallest memory configurations used 4kx1 DRAMs, with larger ones using 16kx1 DRAMs, or mix of 4-kilobyte and 16-kilobyte banks (the chips in any one bank have to be the same size). The early Apple II+ models retained this feature, but after a drop in DRAM prices, Apple redesigned the circuit boards without the jumpers, so that only 16kx1 chips were supported. A few months later, they started shipping all machines with a full 48 KiB complement of DRAM.
Unlike most machines, all integrated circuits on the Apple II PCB were socketed; this cost more to manufacture and created the possibility of loose chips causing a system malfunction, but it was considered preferable to make servicing and replacement of bad chips easier.
The Apple II PCB lacks any means of generating an interrupt request, although expansion cards may generate one. Program code had to stop everything to perform any I/O task; like many of the computer\'s other idiosyncrasies, this was due to cost reasons and Steve Wozniak assuming interrupts were not needed for gaming or using the computer as a teaching tool.
## Display and graphics {#display_and_graphics}
Color on the Apple II series uses a quirk of the NTSC television signal standard, which made color display relatively easy and inexpensive to implement. The original NTSC television signal specification was black and white. Color was added later by adding a 3.58-megahertz subcarrier signal that was partially ignored by black-and-white TV sets. Color is encoded based on the phase of this signal in relation to a reference color burst signal. The result is that the position, size, and intensity of a series of pulses define color information. These pulses can translate into pixels on the computer screen, with the possibility of exploiting composite artifact colors.
The Apple II display provides two pixels per subcarrier cycle. When the color burst reference signal is turned on and the computer is attached to a color display, it can display green by showing one alternating pattern of pixels, magenta with an opposite pattern of alternating pixels, and white by placing two pixels next to each other. Blue and orange are available by tweaking the pixel offset by half a pixel-width in relation to the color-burst signal. The high-resolution display offers more colors by compressing more (and narrower) pixels into each subcarrier cycle.
The coarse, low-resolution graphics display mode works differently, as it can output a pattern of dots per pixel to offer more color options. These patterns are stored in the character generator ROM, and replace the text character bit patterns when the computer is switched to low-res graphics mode. The text mode and low-res graphics mode use the same memory region and the same circuitry is used for both.
A single HGR page occupied 8 KiB of RAM; in practice this meant that the user had to have at least 12 KiB of total RAM to use HGR mode and 20 KiB to use two pages. Early Apple II games from the 1977--79 period often ran only in text or low-resolution mode in order to support users with small memory configurations; HGR not being near universally supported by games until 1980.
## Sound
Rather than a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II contains a toggle circuit that can only emit a click through a built-in speaker or a line-out jack. More complex sounds, such as music or audio samples, are generated by software manually toggling the speaker at an appropriate frequency. This technique requires careful and precise timing, rendering it difficult to display moving graphics while sound is playing. Third party expansion cards were later released that addressed this problem.
A similar technique is used for cassette storage: cassette output works the same as the speaker, and input uses a simple zero-crossing detector as a 1-bit audio digitizer. Routines in machine ROM encode and decode data in frequency-shift keying for the cassette.
## Programming languages {#programming_languages}
Initially, the Apple II was shipped with Integer BASIC encoded in the motherboard ROM chips. Written by Wozniak, the interpreter enabled users to write software applications without needing to purchase additional development utilities. Written with game programmers and hobbyists in mind, the language only supported the encoding of numbers in 16-bit integer format. Since it only supported integers between -32768 and +32767 (signed 16-bit integer), it was less suitable to business software, and Apple soon received complaints from customers. Because Steve Wozniak was busy developing the Disk II hardware, he did not have time to modify Integer BASIC for floating point support. Apple instead licensed Microsoft\'s 6502 BASIC to create Applesoft BASIC.
Disk users normally purchased a so-called Language Card, which had Applesoft in ROM, and was located below the Integer BASIC ROM in system memory. The user could switch between either BASIC by typing `{{code|FP}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{code|INT}}`{=mediawiki} in BASIC prompt. Apple also offered a different version of Applesoft for cassette users, which occupied low memory, and was started by using the `{{code|LOAD}}`{=mediawiki} command in Integer BASIC.
As shipped, Apple II incorporated a machine code monitor with commands for displaying and altering the computer\'s RAM, either one byte at a time, or in blocks of 256 bytes at once. This enabled programmers to write and debug machine code programs without further development software. The computer powers on into the monitor ROM, displaying a `{{code|*}}`{=mediawiki} prompt. From there, `{{key press|Ctrl|B}}`{=mediawiki} enters BASIC, or a machine language program can be loaded from cassette. Disk software can be booted with `{{key press|Ctrl|P}}`{=mediawiki} followed by `{{key press|6}}`{=mediawiki}, referring to Slot 6 which normally contained the Disk II controller.
A 6502 assembler was soon offered on disk, and later the UCSD compiler and operating system for the Pascal language were made available. The Pascal system requires a 16 KiB RAM card to be installed in the language card position (expansion slot 0) in addition to the full 48 KiB of motherboard memory.
## Manual
The first 1,000 or so Apple IIs shipped in 1977 with a 68-page mimeographed \"Apple II Mini Manual\", hand-bound with brass paper fasteners. This was the basis for the *Apple II Reference Manual,* which became known as the Red Book for its red cover, published in January 1978. All existing customers who sent in their warranty cards were sent free copies of the Red Book. The *Apple II Reference Manual* contained the complete schematic of the entire computer\'s circuitry, and a complete source listing of the \"Monitor\" ROM firmware that served as the machine\'s BIOS.
An Apple II manual signed by Steve Jobs in 1980 with the inscription \"Julian, your generation is the first to grow up with computers. Go change the world.\" sold at auction for \$787,484 in 2021.
## Operating system {#operating_system}
The original Apple II came with an 8 KiB ROM containing a BASIC variant called Integer BASIC as well as a resident monitor called the Apple System Monitor. Initially, only cassette tape was available for storage, which was considered too slow and unreliable for business use. In late 1977, Apple began to develop the Disk II floppy disk drive and required an operating system to utilize it. The existing standard at the time was CP/M, but due to incompatibility with the 6502 processor and a perceived clunkiness, Apple contracted Shepardson Microsystems for \$13,000 to write Apple DOS. At Shepardson, Paul Laughton developed the software in just 35 days, a remarkably short deadline, even for the time. The Disk II and Apple DOS were released in late 1978. The final and most popular version of this software was Apple DOS 3.3.
Apple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical filesystem and larger storage devices. With an optional third-party Z80-based expansion card, the Apple II could boot into the CP/M operating system and run WordStar, dBase II, and other CP/M software.
Apple released Applesoft BASIC in 1977, a more advanced variant of the language which users could run instead of Integer BASIC for more capabilities, such as the ability to use floating point numbers.
Some commercial Apple II software came on self-booting disks and did not use standard DOS disk formats. This discouraged the copying or modifying of the software on the disks, and improved loading speed.
## Third-party devices and applications {#third_party_devices_and_applications}
When the Apple II initially shipped in June 1977, no expansion cards were available for the slots. This meant that the user did not have any way of connecting a modem or a printer. One popular hack involved connecting a teletype machine to the cassette output.
Wozniak\'s open-architecture design and Apple II\'s multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices, including peripheral cards, such as serial controllers, display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, networking components, and real-time clocks. There were plug-in expansion cards---such as the Z-80 SoftCard---that permitted Apple II to use the Z80 processor and run programs for the CP/M operating system, including the dBase II database and the WordStar word processor. The Z80 card also allowed the connection to a modem, and thereby to any networks that a user might have access to. In the early days, such networks were scarce. But they expanded significantly with the development of bulletin board systems in later years. There was also a third-party 6809 card that allowed OS-9 Level One to be run. Third-party sound cards greatly improved audio capabilities, allowing simple music synthesis and text-to-speech functions. Apple II accelerator cards doubled or quadrupled the computer\'s speed.
Early Apple IIs were often sold with a Sup\'R\'Mod, which allowed the composite video signal to be viewed in a television.
The Soviet Union radio-electronics industry designed Apple II-compatible computer Agat. Roughly 12,000 Agat 7 and 9 models were produced and they were widely used in Soviet schools. Agat 9 computers could run \"Apple II\" compatibility and native modes. \"Apple II\" mode allowed to run a wider variety of (presumably pirated) Apple II software, but at the expense of less RAM. Because of that Soviet developers preferred native mode over \"Apple II\" compatibility mode.
In 1978, Bob Bishop of Apple Computer, Inc. programmed 9 Apple II computers to run the gameboard on the TV game show *Tic-Tac-Dough*;. Each Apple was responsible for displaying various contents for each box of the gameboard (category, X, O, bonus game numbers and amounts, TIC, TAC or Dragon, as well displaying custom messages and an active screensaver), and in turn controlled by an Altair 8800 system. It was the first game show to use computerized graphics.
## Reception
Jesse Adams Stein wrote, \"As the first company to release a \'consumer appliance\' micro-computer, Apple Computer offers us a clear view of this shift from a *machine* to an *appliance*.\" But the company also had \"to negotiate the attitudes of its potential buyers, bearing in mind social anxieties about the uptake of new technologies in multiple contexts. The office, the home and the \'office-in-the-home\' were implicated in these changing spheres of gender stereotypes and technological development.\" After seeing a crude, wire-wrapped prototype demonstrated by Wozniak and Steve Jobs in November 1976, *Byte* predicted in April 1977, that the Apple II \"may be the first product to fully qualify as the \'appliance computer\' \... a completed system which is purchased off the retail shelf, taken home, plugged in and used\". The computer\'s color graphics capability especially impressed the magazine. The magazine published a favorable review of the computer in March 1978, concluding: \"For the user that wants color graphics, the Apple II is the only practical choice available in the \'appliance\' computer class.\"
*Personal Computer World* in August 1978 also cited the color capability as a strength, stating that \"the prime reason that anyone buys an Apple II must surely be for the colour graphics\". While mentioning the \"oddity\" of the artifact colors that produced output \"that is not always what one wishes to do\", it noted that \"no-one has colour graphics like this at this sort of price\". The magazine praised the sophisticated monitor software, user expandability, and comprehensive documentation. The author concluded that \"the Apple II is a very promising machine\" which \"would be even more of a temptation were its price slightly lower \... for the moment, colour is an Apple II\".
Although it sold well from the launch, the initial market was to hobbyists and computer enthusiasts. Sales expanded exponentially into the business and professional market, when the spreadsheet program VisiCalc was launched in mid-1979. VisiCalc is credited as the defining killer app in the microcomputer industry.
By the end of 1977 Apple had sales of `{{US$|long=no|775,000}}`{=mediawiki} for the fiscal year, which included sales of the Apple I. This put Apple clearly behind the others of the \"holy trinity\" of the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, even though the TRS-80 was launched last of the three. However, during the first five years of operations, revenues doubled about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, annual sales grew from `{{US$|long=no|775,000}}`{=mediawiki} to `{{US$|long=no|118 million}}`{=mediawiki}. During this period the sole products of the company were the Apple II and its peripherals, accessories, and software.
In 2006, PC World wrote that the Apple II was the greatest PC of all time.
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Alexis Korner
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**Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner** (19 April 1928 -- 1 January 1984), known professionally as **Alexis Korner**, was a British blues musician and radio broadcaster, who has sometimes been referred to as \"a founding father of British blues\". A major influence on the sound of the British music scene in the 1960s, he was instrumental in the formation of several notable British bands including The Rolling Stones and Free. Korner was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the musical influence category in 2024.
## Early career {#early_career}
Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner was born on 19 April 1928 in Paris, France, to an Austrian Jewish father and a mother of Greek, Turkish and Austrian descent. He spent his childhood in France, Switzerland and North Africa, and arrived in London in 1940 after the start of the Second World War. One memory of his youth was listening to a record by black pianist Jimmy Yancey during a German air raid. Korner said, \"From then on all I wanted to do was play the blues.\"
After the war, Korner played piano and guitar (his first guitar was built by friend and author Sydney Hopkins, who wrote *Mister God, This Is Anna*) and in 1949 joined Chris Barber\'s Jazz Band where he met blues harmonica player Cyril Davies. They started playing together as a duo, started the influential London Blues and Barrelhouse Club in 1955 and made their first record together in 1957.
Korner made his first official record on Decca Records DFE 6286 in the company of Ken Colyer\'s Skiffle Group. His talent extended to playing mandolin on one of the tracks of this British EP, recorded in London on 28 July 1955. Korner encouraged many American blues artists, previously virtually unknown in Britain, to perform at the London Blues and Barrelhouse Club, which he established with Davies at the Round House pub in Soho.
## The 1960s {#the_1960s}
In 1961, Korner and Davies formed Blues Incorporated, initially a loose-knit group of musicians with a shared love of electric blues and R&B music. The group included, at various times, Charlie Watts, Jack Bruce, Ginger Baker, Long John Baldry, Graham Bond, Danny Thompson and Dick Heckstall-Smith. It also attracted a wider crowd of mostly younger fans, some of whom occasionally performed with the group, including Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Brian Jones, Geoff Bradford, Rod Stewart, John Mayall, and Jimmy Page.
Although Cyril Davies left the group in late 1962, Blues Incorporated continued to record, with Korner at the helm, until 1966. However, by that time its originally stellar line-up (and crowd of followers) had mostly left to start their own bands. While his one-time acolytes, the Rolling Stones and Cream, made the front pages of music magazines all over the world, Korner was relegated to the role of \'elder statesman\'.
In 1966, Korner formed the trio Free At Last with Hughie Flint and Binky McKenzie. Flint later recalled \"I played with Alexis, right after leaving The Bluesbreakers, in a trio, which Alexis named *Free At Last*, a sort of mini and slightly restricted version of Blues Incorporated. Playing with Alexis was very loose. We would play anything from Percy Mayfield\'s 'River\'s Invitation\' to Charles Mingus\' 'Better Get It In Your Soul\' -- with lots of freaky guitar and bass solos. Alexis, like John Mayall had the most eclectic taste in music, very knowledgeable, and generous, and I am indebted to both of them for my wide approach to music\".
Although *Free At Last* was short-lived, Korner ensured its name lived on in part by christening another young group of aspiring musicians, Free. Korner was instrumental in the formation of the band in April 1968, and continued to mentor them until they secured a deal with Island Records.
Although he himself was a blues purist, Korner criticised better-known British blues musicians during the blues boom of the late 1960s for their blind adherence to Chicago blues, as if the music came in no other form. He liked to surround himself with jazz musicians and often performed with a horn section drawn from a pool that included, among others, saxophone players Art Themen, Mel Collins, Dick Heckstall-Smith, and Lol Coxhill.
While touring Scandinavia he formed the band New Church with guitarist and singer Peter Thorup. They subsequently were one of the support bands at the Rolling Stones Free Concert in Hyde Park, London, on 5 July 1969. Jimmy Page reportedly found out about a new singer, Robert Plant, who had been jamming with Korner, who wondered why Plant had not yet been discovered. Plant and Korner were recording an album with Plant on vocals until Page had asked him to join \"the New Yardbirds\", a.k.a. Led Zeppelin. Only two songs are in circulation from these recordings: \"Steal Away\" and \"Operator\". Korner gave one of his last radio interviews to BBC Midlands on the *Record Collectors Show* with Mike Adams and Chris Savory.
## Broadcasting
In the 1960s Korner began a media career, working initially as a showbusiness interviewer and then on ITV\'s *Five O\'Clock Club*, a children\'s TV show. Korner also wrote about blues for the music papers, and continued to maintain his own career as a blues artist, especially in Europe. Korner\'s main career in the 1970s was in broadcasting. In 1973, he presented a six-part documentary on BBC Radio 1, *The Rolling Stones Story*, and in 1977 he established a Sunday-night show on Radio 1, *Alexis Korner\'s Blues and Soul Show*, which ran until 1981. He also used his gravelly voice to great effect as an advertising voice-over artist. In 1983, Korner presented the 13 part BBC Radio 1 series, Guitar Greats, interviewing each of the artists, and playing their music.
## 1970s
### CCS period {#ccs_period}
In 1970, Korner and Thorup formed a big-band ensemble, CCS -- short for \"The Collective Consciousness Society\" -- which had several hit singles produced by Mickie Most, including a version of Led Zeppelin\'s \"Whole Lotta Love\", which was used as the theme for BBC\'s *Top of the Pops* between 1970 and 1981. Another instrumental called \"Brother\" was used as the theme to the BBC Radio 1 Top 20/40 when Tom Browne/Simon Bates presented the programme in the 1970s. It was also used in the 1990s on Radio Luxembourg for the Top 20 Singles chart. This was the period of Korner\'s greatest commercial success in the UK. In 1973, he provided a voice part for the Hot Chocolate single release Brother Louie.
### 1970s to 1984 {#s_to_1984}
In 1973, he and Peter Thorup formed another group, Snape, with Boz Burrell, Mel Collins, and Ian Wallace, who were previously together in King Crimson. Korner also played on B.B. King\'s *In London* album, and cut his own, similar \"supersession\" album; *Get Off My Cloud*, with Keith Richards, Steve Marriott, Peter Frampton, Nicky Hopkins and members of Joe Cocker\'s Grease Band. In the mid-1970s, while touring Germany, Korner established an intensive working relationship with bassist Colin Hodgkinson who played for the support act Back Door. They would continue to collaborate right up until Korner\'s death.
In 1978, for Korner\'s 50th birthday, an all-star concert was held featuring many of his above-mentioned friends, as well as Eric Clapton, Paul Jones, Chris Farlowe, Zoot Money and others, which was later released as *The Party Album*, and as a video.
In 1981, Korner joined another \"supergroup\", Rocket 88, a project led by Ian Stewart based on boogie-woogie keyboard players, which featured a rhythm section comprising Jack Bruce and Charlie Watts, among others, as well as a horn section. They toured Europe and released an album on Atlantic Records. He played in Italy with Paul Jones and the Blues Society of Italian bluesman Guido Toffoletti.
## Family life and death {#family_life_and_death}
In 1950, Korner married Roberta Melville (died 2021), daughter of art critic Robert Melville. He had a daughter, singer Sappho Gillett Korner (died 2006), and two sons, guitarist Nicholas \'Nico\' Korner (died 1989) and sound engineer Damian Korner (died 2008).
Alexis Korner died in London from lung cancer on 1 January 1984, at the age of 55.
Korner was posthumously inducted, by Keith Richards, into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2024 in the musical influence category.
## Album discography (selected UK and other releases) {#album_discography_selected_uk_and_other_releases}
- *Blues from the Roundhouse* 10-inch (1957) -- Alexis Korner\'s Breakdown Group
- *R&B from the Marquee* (1962) -- Alexis Korner\'s Blues Incorporated
- *Red Hot from Alex* (1964) -- Alexis Korner\'s Blues Incorporated
- *At the Cavern* (1964) -- Alexis Korner\'s Blues Incorporated
- *Alexis Korner\'s Blues Incorporated* (1965) -- Alexis Korner\'s Blues Incorporated
- *Sky High* (1966) -- Alexis Korner Blues Incorporated
- *I Wonder Who* (1967)
- *Alexis Korner\'s Blues Incorporated* (re-issue of *Sky High*) -- Alexis Korner\'s Blues Incorporated
- *A New Generation of Blues* (1968)
- *Both Sides* (1970) -- New Church
- *CCS 1st* (1970) -- CCS
- *Alexis Korner* (1971)
- *Bootleg Him!* (1972)
- *CCS 2nd* (1972) -- CCS
- *Accidentally Borne in New Orleans* (1972) -- with Peter Thorup; Snape
- *Live on Tour in Germany* (1973) -- with Peter Thorup; Snape
- *The Best Band in the Land* (1973) -- CCS
- *Alexis Korner* (1974)
- *Get Off My Cloud* (1975)
- *The Lost Album* (1977)
- *Just Easy* (1978)
- *The Party Album* (1979) -- Alexis Korner and Friends
- *Me* (1980)
- *Rocket 88* (1981) -- Rocket 88
- *Juvenile Delinquent* (1984)
- *Testament* (1985) -- with Colin Hodgkinson
- *Live in Paris* (1988) -- with Colin Hodgkinson
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Adrenal gland
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The **adrenal glands** (also known as **suprarenal glands**) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three main zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis.
The adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) produced in the zona glomerulosa help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance. The glucocorticoids cortisol and cortisone are synthesized in the zona fasciculata; their functions include the regulation of metabolism and immune system suppression. The innermost layer of the cortex, the zona reticularis, produces androgens that are converted to fully functional sex hormones in the gonads and other target organs. The production of steroid hormones is called steroidogenesis, and involves a number of reactions and processes that take place in cortical cells. The medulla produces the catecholamines, which function to produce a rapid response throughout the body in stress situations.
A number of endocrine diseases involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to Cushing\'s syndrome, whereas insufficient production is associated with Addison\'s disease. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of tumors can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in medical imaging when searching for other diseases. `{{TOC limit|3}}`{=mediawiki}
## Structure
The adrenal glands are located on both sides of the body in the retroperitoneum, above and slightly medial to the kidneys. In humans, the right adrenal gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is semilunar or crescent shaped and somewhat larger. The adrenal glands measure approximately 5 cm in length, 3 cm in width, and up to 1 cm in thickness. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour.
The adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule and lie within the renal fascia, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak septum (wall) of connective tissue separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the diaphragm, and are attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal fascia.
Each adrenal gland has two distinct parts, each with a unique function, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla, both of which produce hormones.
### Adrenal cortex {#adrenal_cortex}
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called \"zones\". When viewed under a microscope each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones, namely aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens.
#### Zona glomerulosa {#zona_glomerulosa}
The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries.
This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure.
#### Zona fasciculata {#zona_fasciculata}
The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
#### Zona reticularis {#zona_reticularis}
The innermost cortical layer, the zona reticularis, lies directly adjacent to the medulla. It produces androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. Its small cells form irregular cords and clusters, separated by capillaries and connective tissue. The cells contain relatively small quantities of cytoplasm and lipid droplets, and sometimes display brown lipofuscin pigment.
### Medulla
The adrenal medulla is at the center of each adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The chromaffin cells of the medulla are the body\'s main source of the catecholamines, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, released by the medulla. Approximately 20% noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and 80% adrenaline (epinephrine) are secreted here.
The adrenal medulla is driven by the sympathetic nervous system via preganglionic fibers originating in the thoracic spinal cord, from vertebrae T5--T11. Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.
### Blood supply {#blood_supply}
The adrenal glands have one of the greatest blood supply rates per gram of tissue of any organ: up to 60 small arteries may enter each gland. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland:
- The superior suprarenal artery, a branch of the inferior phrenic artery
- The middle suprarenal artery, a direct branch of the abdominal aorta
- The inferior suprarenal artery, a branch of the renal artery
These blood vessels supply a network of small arteries within the capsule of the adrenal glands. Thin strands of the capsule enter the glands, carrying blood to them.
Venous blood is drained from the glands by the suprarenal veins, usually one for each gland:
- The right suprarenal vein drains into the inferior vena cava.
- The left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein or the left inferior phrenic vein.
The central adrenomedullary vein, in the adrenal medulla, is an unusual type of blood vessel. Its structure is different from the other veins in that the smooth muscle in its tunica media (the middle layer of the vessel) is arranged in conspicuous, longitudinally oriented bundles.
### Variability
The adrenal glands may not develop at all, or may be fused in the midline behind the aorta. These are associated with other congenital abnormalities, such as failure of the kidneys to develop, or fused kidneys. The gland may develop with a partial or complete absence of the cortex, or may develop in an unusual location.
## Function
The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions.
### Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named.
- Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt (\"mineral\") balance and blood pressure
- Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars (\"glucose\").
- Androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone.
Mineralocorticoids
The adrenal gland produces aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, which is important in the regulation of salt (\"mineral\") balance and blood volume. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of about 2% of filtered glomerular filtrate. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. The amount of sodium present in the body affects the extracellular volume, which in turn influences blood pressure. Therefore, the effects of aldosterone in sodium retention are important for the regulation of blood pressure.
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid in humans. In species that do not create cortisol, this role is played by corticosterone instead. Glucocorticoids have many effects on metabolism. As their name suggests, they increase the circulating level of glucose. This is the result of an increase in the mobilization of amino acids from protein and the stimulation of synthesis of glucose from these amino acids in the liver. In addition, they increase the levels of free fatty acids, which cells can use as an alternative to glucose to obtain energy. Glucocorticoids also have effects unrelated to the regulation of blood sugar levels, including the suppression of the immune system and a potent anti-inflammatory effect. Cortisol reduces the capacity of osteoblasts to produce new bone tissue and decreases the absorption of calcium in the gastrointestinal tract.
The adrenal gland secretes a basal level of cortisol but can also produce bursts of the hormone in response to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. Cortisol is not evenly released during the day -- its concentrations in the blood are highest in the early morning and lowest in the evening as a result of the circadian rhythm of ACTH secretion. Cortisone is an inactive product of the action of the enzyme 11β-HSD on cortisol. The reaction catalyzed by 11β-HSD is reversible, which means that it can turn administered cortisone into cortisol, the biologically active hormone.
Formation
All corticosteroid hormones share cholesterol as a common precursor. Therefore, the first step in steroidogenesis is cholesterol uptake or synthesis. Cells that produce steroid hormones can acquire cholesterol through two paths. The main source is through dietary cholesterol transported via the blood as cholesterol esters within low density lipoproteins (LDL). LDL enters the cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis. The other source of cholesterol is synthesis in the cell\'s endoplasmic reticulum. Synthesis can compensate when LDL levels are abnormally low. In the lysosome, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell.
The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family that are located in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis.
The layers of the adrenal gland differ by function, with each layer having distinct enzymes that produce different hormones from a common precursor. The first enzymatic step in the production of all steroid hormones is cleavage of the cholesterol side chain, a reaction that forms pregnenolone as a product and is catalyzed by the enzyme P450scc, also known as *cholesterol desmolase*. After the production of pregnenolone, specific enzymes of each cortical layer further modify it. Enzymes involved in this process include both mitochondrial and microsomal P450s and hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. Usually a number of intermediate steps in which pregnenolone is modified several times are required to form the functional hormones. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia develops as a result of deficiency of 21-hydroxylase, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production.
Regulation
Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the hypothalamic--pituitary--adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by neurons of the hypothalamus. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative feedback system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the inflammatory response.
Mineralocorticoid secretion is regulated mainly by the renin--angiotensin--aldosterone system (RAAS), the concentration of potassium, and to a lesser extent the concentration of ACTH. Sensors of blood pressure in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidneys release the enzyme renin into the blood, which starts a cascade of reactions that lead to formation of angiotensin II. Angiotensin receptors in cells of the zona glomerulosa recognize the substance, and upon binding they stimulate the release of aldosterone.
### Androgens
Cells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or androgens, the most important of which is DHEA. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens (female sex hormones) in the gonads, acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate.
### Catecholamines
Also called epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively, are catecholamines -- water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. These hormones are released by the adrenal medulla, which contains a dense network of blood vessels. Adrenaline and noradrenaline act by binding to adrenoreceptors throughout the body, with effects that include an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline are responsible for the fight or flight response, characterised by a quickening of breathing and heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, and constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body.
#### Formation
Catecholamines are produced in chromaffin cells in the medulla of the adrenal gland, from tyrosine, a non-essential amino acid derived from food or produced from phenylalanine in the liver. The enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine to L-DOPA in the first step of catecholamine synthesis. L-DOPA is then converted to dopamine before it can be turned into noradrenaline. In the cytosol, noradrenaline is converted to epinephrine by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) and stored in granules. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex stimulate the synthesis of catecholamines by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase and PNMT.
Catecholamine release is stimulated by the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Splanchnic nerves of the sympathetic nervous system innervate the medulla of the adrenal gland. When activated, it evokes the release of catecholamines from the storage granules by stimulating the opening of calcium channels in the cell membrane.
## Gene and protein expression {#gene_and_protein_expression}
The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as CYP11A1, HSD3B2 and FDX1 involved in steroid hormone synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and PNMT and DBH involved in noradrenaline and adrenaline synthesis and expressed in the medulla.
## Development
The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the sympathetic nervous system. Surrounding the medulla is the cortex, which produces a variety of steroid hormones. These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm, whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest, which is of ectodermal origin.
The adrenal glands in a newborn baby are much larger as a proportion of the body size than in an adult. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex, which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4--5. The glands weigh about `{{Value|1|u=gram}}`{=mediawiki} at birth and develop to an adult weight of about `{{Value|4|u=grams}}`{=mediawiki} each. In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development.
### Cortex
Adrenal cortex tissue is derived from the intermediate mesoderm. It first appears 33 days after fertilisation, shows steroid hormone production capabilities by the eighth week and undergoes rapid growth during the first trimester of pregnancy. The fetal adrenal cortex is different from its adult counterpart, as it is composed of two distinct zones: the inner \"fetal\" zone, which carries most of the hormone-producing activity, and the outer \"definitive\" zone, which is in a proliferative phase. The fetal zone produces large amounts of adrenal androgens (male sex hormones) that are used by the placenta for estrogen biosynthesis. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by ACTH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100--200 mg/day of DHEA-S, an androgen and precursor of both androgens and estrogens (female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially glucocorticoids such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the lungs. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion.
#### Adrenarche
During early childhood androgen synthesis and secretion remain low, but several years before puberty (from 6--8 years of age) changes occur in both anatomical and functional aspects of cortical androgen production that lead to increased secretion of the steroids DHEA and DHEA-S. These changes are part of a process called adrenarche, which has only been described in humans and some other primates. Adrenarche is independent of ACTH or gonadotropins and correlates with a progressive thickening of the zona reticularis layer of the cortex. Functionally, adrenarche provides a source of androgens for the development of axillary and pubic hair before the beginning of puberty.
### Medulla {#medulla_1}
The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that BMP-4 secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells.
## Clinical significance {#clinical_significance}
The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and autoimmune diseases, or as a side effect of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of Cushing\'s syndrome) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms.
### Corticosteroid overproduction {#corticosteroid_overproduction}
#### Cushing\'s syndrome {#cushings_syndrome}
Cushing\'s syndrome is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the HPA axis or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of endogenous Cushing\'s syndrome is a pituitary adenoma which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (hirsutism), osteoporosis, depression, and most distinctively, stretch marks in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning.
#### Primary aldosteronism {#primary_aldosteronism}
When the zona glomerulosa produces excess aldosterone, the result is primary aldosteronism. Causes for this condition are bilateral hyperplasia (excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing adenomas (a condition called Conn\'s syndrome). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and electrolyte imbalance, increasing potassium depletion sodium retention.
### Adrenal insufficiency {#adrenal_insufficiency}
Adrenal insufficiency (the deficiency of glucocorticoids) occurs in about 5 in 10,000 in the general population. Diseases classified as *primary adrenal insufficiency* (including Addison\'s disease and genetic causes) directly affect the adrenal cortex. If a problem that affects the hypothalamic--pituitary--adrenal axis arises outside the gland, it is a *secondary adrenal insufficiency*.
#### Addison\'s disease {#addisons_disease}
Addison\'s disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the Western world, Addison\'s disease is most commonly an autoimmune condition, in which the body produces antibodies against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from tuberculosis. A distinctive feature of Addison\'s disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue.
A complication seen in untreated Addison\'s disease and other types of primary adrenal insufficiency is the adrenal crisis, a medical emergency in which low glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid levels result in hypovolemic shock and symptoms such as vomiting and fever. An adrenal crisis can progressively lead to stupor and coma. The management of adrenal crises includes the application of hydrocortisone injections.
#### Secondary adrenal insufficiency {#secondary_adrenal_insufficiency}
In secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the hypothalamic--pituitary--adrenal axis leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary gland. This type of adrenal insufficiency usually does not affect the production of mineralocorticoids, which are under regulation of the renin--angiotensin system instead.
#### Congenital adrenal hyperplasia {#congenital_adrenal_hyperplasia}
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a family of congenital diseases in which mutations of enzymes that produce steroid hormones result in a glucocorticoid deficiency and malfunction of the negative feedback loop of the HPA axis. In the HPA axis, cortisol (a glucocorticoid) inhibits the release of CRH and ACTH, hormones that in turn stimulate corticosteroid synthesis. As cortisol cannot be synthesized, these hormones are released in high quantities and stimulate production of other adrenal steroids instead. The most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia is due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. 21-hydroxylase is necessary for production of both mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids, but not androgens. Therefore, ACTH stimulation of the adrenal cortex induces the release of excessive amounts of adrenal androgens, which can lead to the development of ambiguous genitalia and secondary sex characteristics.
### Adrenal tumors {#adrenal_tumors}
*Main article: Adrenal tumor* Adrenal tumors are commonly found as incidentalomas, unexpected asymptomatic tumors found during medical imaging. They are seen in around 3.4% of CT scans, and in most cases they are benign adenomas. Adrenal carcinomas are very rare, with an incidence of 1 case per million per year.
Pheochromocytomas are tumors of the adrenal medulla that arise from chromaffin cells. They can produce a variety of nonspecific symptoms, which include headaches, sweating, anxiety and palpitations. Common signs include hypertension and tachycardia. Surgery, especially adrenal laparoscopy, is the most common treatment for small pheochromocytomas.
## History
Bartolomeo Eustachi, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563--4. However, these publications were part of the papal library and did not receive public attention, which was first received with Caspar Bartholin the Elder\'s illustrations in 1611.
The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term \"adrenal\" comes from Latin *ad*, \"near\", and *ren*, \"kidney\". Similarly, \"suprarenal\", as termed by Jean Riolan the Younger in 1629, is derived from the Latin *supra*, \"above\", and *ren*, \"kidney\", as well. The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role -- prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney.
One of the most recognized works on the adrenal glands came in 1855 with the publication of *On the Constitutional and Local Effects of Disease of the Suprarenal Capsule*, by the English physician Thomas Addison. In his monography, Addison described what the French physician George Trousseau would later name Addison\'s disease, an eponym still used today for a condition of adrenal insufficiency and its related clinical manifestations. In 1894, English physiologists George Oliver and Edward Schafer studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their pressor effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat Addison\'s disease. Edward Calvin Kendall, Philip Hench and Tadeusz Reichstein were then awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries on the structure and effects of the adrenal hormones.
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Saint Titus
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**Titus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|aɪ|t|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|TY|təs}}`{=mediawiki}; *Τίτος*, *Títos*) was an early Christian missionary and church leader, a companion and disciple of Paul the Apostle, mentioned in several of the Pauline epistles including the Epistle to Titus. He is believed to be a Gentile converted to Christianity by Paul and, according to tradition, he was consecrated as Bishop of the Island of Crete.
Titus brought a fundraising letter from Paul to Corinth, to collect for the poor in Jerusalem. According to Jerome, Titus was the amanuensis of this epistle (2 Corinthians). Later, on Crete, Titus appointed presbyters (elders) in every city and remained there into his old age, dying in Gortyna.
## Life
Titus was a Greek, who may have studied Greek philosophy and poetry in his early years. He seems to have been converted by Paul, whereupon he served as Paul\'s secretary and interpreter. In the year 48 or 49 CE, Titus accompanied Paul to the council held at Jerusalem, on the subject of the Mosaic rites.
In the fall of 55 or 56 CE, Paul, as he himself departed from Asia, sent Titus from Ephesus to Corinth, with full commission to remedy the fallout precipitated by Timothy\'s delivery of 1 Corinthians and Paul\'s \"Painful Visit\", particularly a significant personal offense and challenge to Paul\'s authority by one unnamed individual. During this journey, Titus served as the courier for what is commonly known as the \"Severe Letter\", a Pauline missive that has been lost but is referred to in `{{Bibleverse|2 Corinthians|7:8-9|NIV}}`{=mediawiki}.
After success on this mission, Titus journeyed north and met Paul in Macedonia. There the apostle, overjoyed by Titus\' success, wrote 2 Corinthians. Titus then returned to Corinth with a larger entourage, carrying 2 Corinthians with him. Paul joined Titus in Corinth later. From Corinth, Paul then sent Titus to organize the collections of alms for the Christians at Jerusalem. Titus was therefore a troubleshooter, peacemaker, ecclesiastical administrator, and missionary.
Early church tradition holds that Paul, after his release from his first imprisonment in Rome, stopped at the island of Crete to preach. Due to the needs of other churches, requiring his presence elsewhere, he ordained his disciple Titus as bishop of that island, and left him to finish the work he had started. John Chrysostom says that this is an indication of the esteem Paul held for Titus.
Paul summoned Titus from Crete to join him at Nicopolis in Epirus. Later, Titus traveled to Dalmatia. The New Testament does not record his death.
## Identification with Timothy {#identification_with_timothy}
It has been argued that the name \"Titus\" in 2 Corinthians and Galatians was an informal name used by Timothy, a view circumstantially supported by the fact that both are said to be long-term close companions of Paul, even though they never appear together in these books. The theory proposes that a number of passages (1 Corinthians 4:17, 16.10; 2 Corinthians 2:13, 7:6, 13--14, 12:18; and Acts 19.22) refer to the same journey of a single individual, variously called Titus and Timothy. In support of this position, some draw on the fourth-century commentaries of Gaius Marius Victorinus.
Of course conjecture based upon a fourth century commentary or church tradition does not carry the weight of Scripture. `{{Bibleverse||Galatians|2:3}}`{=mediawiki} indicates that Titus, an uncircumcised Gentile believer, was with Paul in Antioch before the first apostolic mission, and that neither Paul nor Barnabas nor the apostles in Jerusalem compelled Titus to be circumcised when he went with Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem. (Galatians 2:1-10). Secondly, Paul met Timothy much later, on his 2nd apostolic mission (Acts 16:1-3). When Timothy joined the apostolic team in Lystra, he was circumcised in `{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:3|NIV}}`{=mediawiki}. Also, the name Titus is a Latin name, while Timothy is a Greek name. Quite possibly Titus was a Roman, while Timothy was the son of a Greek father and a Jewish mother (Acts 16:1). Finally and conclusively, in `{{Bibleverse|2 Timothy|4:10|NIV}}`{=mediawiki}, Paul tells Timothy that Titus has departed to Dalmatia. Clearly they are different men.
## Veneration
Titus was venerated as a saint earlier than 261 CE. The feast day of Titus was not included in the Tridentine calendar. When added in 1854, it was assigned to 6 February. In 1969, the Catholic Church assigned the feast to 26 January so as to celebrate the two disciples of Paul, Titus and Timothy, the day after the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America celebrates these two, together with Silas, on the same date while he is honored on the calendars of the Church of England and Episcopal Church (with Timothy) on 26 January.
The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates Titus on 25 August and on 4 January. His relics, now consisting of only his skull, are venerated in the Church of St. Titus, Heraklion, Crete, to which it was returned in 1966
after being removed to Venice during the period of Ottoman Crete (1667--1898).
Titus is the patron saint of the United States Army Chaplain Corps. The Corps has established the Order of Titus Award, described by the Department of Defense:
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Anita Hill
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**Anita Faye Hill** (born July 30, 1956) is an American lawyer, educator and author. She is a professor of social policy, law, and women\'s studies at Brandeis University and a faculty member of the university\'s Heller School for Social Policy and Management. She became a national figure in 1991 when she accused U.S. Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, her supervisor at the United States Department of Education and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, of sexual harassment.
## Early life and education {#early_life_and_education}
Anita Hill was born to a family of farmers in Lone Tree, Oklahoma, the youngest of Albert and Erma Hill\'s 13 children. Her family came from Arkansas, where her maternal grandfather Henry Eliot and all of her great-grandparents had been born into slavery. Hill was raised in the Baptist faith.
Hill graduated from Morris High School, Oklahoma, in 1973, where she was class valedictorian. Hill received her bachelor\'s degree in psychology in 1977 from Oklahoma State University. In 1980, she earned her Juris Doctor from Yale Law School in New Haven, Connecticut.
## Early career {#early_career}
Hill was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1980 and began her law career as an associate with the Washington, D.C. firm of Wald, Harkrader & Ross. In 1981, she became an attorney-adviser to Clarence Thomas, who was then the Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education\'s Office for Civil Rights. When Thomas became chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 1982, Hill served as his assistant, leaving the job in 1983.
Hill then became an assistant professor at the Evangelical Christian O. W. Coburn School of Law at Oral Roberts University where she taught from 1983 to 1986. In 1986, she joined the faculty at the University of Oklahoma College of Law where she taught commercial law and contracts.
In 1989, she became the first tenured African American professor at OU. She left the university in 1996 due to ongoing calls for her resignation that began after her 1991 testimony. In 1998, she became a visiting scholar at Brandeis University and, in 2015, a university professor at the school.
## Allegations of sexual harassment against Clarence Thomas {#allegations_of_sexual_harassment_against_clarence_thomas}
In 1991, President George H. W. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas, a federal circuit judge, to succeed retiring Associate Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. Senate hearings on his confirmation were initially completed with Thomas\'s good character being presented as a primary qualification for the high court because he had been a judge for just slightly more than one year. There had been little organized opposition to Thomas\'s nomination, and his confirmation seemed assured until a report of a private interview of Hill by the FBI was leaked to the press. The hearings were then reopened, and Hill was called to testify publicly.
Hill said on October 11, 1991, in televised hearings that Thomas had sexually harassed her while he was her supervisor at the Department of Education and the EEOC. When questioned on why she followed Thomas to the second job after he had already allegedly harassed her, she said working in a reputable position within the civil rights field had been her ambition. The position was appealing enough to keep her from going back into private practice with her previous firm. She said that she realized only later in her life that the choice had represented poor judgment on her part, but that \"at that time, it appeared that the sexual overtures\... had ended.\"
According to Hill, Thomas asked her out socially many times during her two years of employment as his assistant, and after she declined his requests, he used work situations to discuss sexual subjects and push advances. \"He spoke about\... such matters as women having sex with animals and films showing group sex or rape scenes,\" she said, adding that on several occasions Thomas graphically described \"his own sexual prowess\" and the details of his anatomy. Hill also recounted an instance in which Thomas examined a can of Coke on his desk and asked, \"Who has put pubic hair on my Coke?\" Thomas said he had considered Hill a friend whom he had helped at every turn, so when accusations of harassment came from her, they were particularly hurtful and he said, \"I lost the belief that if I did my best, all would work out.\"
Four female witnesses waited in the wings to support Hill\'s credibility, but they were not called, due to what the *Los Angeles Times* described as a private, compromise deal between Republicans and the Senate Judiciary Committee chair, Democrat Joe Biden.
Hill agreed to take a polygraph test. While senators and other authorities observed that polygraph results cannot be relied upon and are inadmissible in courts, Hill\'s results did support her statements. Thomas did not take a polygraph test. He made a vehement and complete denial, saying that he was being subjected to a \"high-tech lynching for uppity blacks\" by white liberals who were seeking to block a black conservative from taking a seat on the Supreme Court. After extensive debate, the United States Senate confirmed Thomas to the Supreme Court by a vote of 52--48, the narrowest margin since the 19th century.
Members questioned Hill\'s credibility after the timeline of her events came into question. They mentioned the time delay of ten years between the alleged behavior by Thomas and Hill\'s accusations, and observed that Hill had followed Thomas to a second job and later had personal contacts with Thomas, including giving him a ride to an airport --- behavior which they said would be inexplicable if Hill\'s allegations were true. Hill countered that she had come forward because she felt an obligation to share information on the character and actions of a person who was being considered for the Supreme Court. She testified that after leaving the EEOC, she had had two \"inconsequential\" phone conversations with Thomas, and had seen him personally on two occasions, once to get a job reference and the second time when he made a public appearance in Oklahoma where she was teaching.
Doubts about the veracity of Hill\'s 1991 testimony persisted among conservatives long after Thomas took his seat on the Court. They were furthered by right-wing magazine *American Spectator* writer David Brock in his 1993 book *The Real Anita Hill*, though he later recanted the claims he had made which he described in his book as \"character assassination,\" and apologized to Hill. After interviewing a number of women who alleged that Thomas had frequently subjected them to sexually explicit remarks, *The Wall Street Journal* reporters Jane Mayer and Jill Abramson wrote, *Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas*, a book that concluded that Thomas had lied during his confirmation process. Richard Lacayo in his 1994 review of the book for *Time* magazine remarked, however, that \"Their book doesn\'t quite nail that conclusion.\" In 2007, Kevin `{{sic|hide=y|Merida}}`{=mediawiki}, a co-author of another book on Thomas, remarked that what happened between Thomas and Hill was \"ultimately unknowable\" by others, but that it was clear that \"one of them lied, period.\" Writing in 2007, Neil Lewis of *The New York Times* remarked that, \"To this day, each side in the epic he-said, she-said dispute has its unmovable believers.\"
In 2007, Thomas published his autobiography, *My Grandfather\'s Son*, in which he revisited the controversy, calling Hill his \"most traitorous adversary\", and writing that pro-choice liberals, who feared he would vote to overturn *Roe v. Wade* if he were seated on the Supreme Court, used the scandal against him. He described Hill as touchy and apt to overreact, and her work at the EEOC as mediocre. He acknowledged that three other former EEOC employees had backed Hill\'s story, but said they had all left the agency on bad terms. He also wrote that Hill \"was a left-winger who\'d never expressed any religious sentiments whatsoever \... and the only reason why she\'d held a job in the Reagan administration was because I\'d given it to her.\" Hill denied the accusations in an op-ed in *The New York Times* saying she would not \"stand by silently and allow \[Justice Thomas\], in his anger, to reinvent me.\"
In October 2010, Thomas\'s wife Virginia, a conservative activist, left a voicemail at Hill\'s office asking that Hill apologize for her 1991 testimony. Hill initially believed the call was a hoax and referred the matter to the Brandeis University campus police who alerted the FBI. After being informed that the call was indeed from Virginia Thomas, Hill told the media that she did not believe the message was meant to be conciliatory and said, \"I testified truthfully about my experience and I stand by that testimony.\" Virginia Thomas responded that the call had been intended as an \"olive branch\".
### Effects
Shortly after the Thomas confirmation hearings, President George H. W. Bush dropped his opposition to a bill that gave harassment victims the right to seek federal damage awards, back pay, and reinstatement, and the law was passed by Congress. One year later, harassment complaints filed with the EEOC were up 50 percent and public opinion had shifted in Hill\'s favor. Private companies also started training programs to deter sexual harassment. When journalist Cinny Kennard asked Hill in 1991 if she would testify against Thomas all over again, Hill answered, \"I\'m not sure if I could have lived with myself if I had answered those questions any differently.\"
The manner in which the Senate Judiciary Committee challenged and dismissed Hill\'s accusations of sexual harassment angered female politicians and lawyers. According to D.C. Congressional Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton, Hill\'s treatment by the panel was a contributing factor to the large number of women elected to Congress in 1992. \"Women clearly went to the polls with the notion in mind that you had to have more women in Congress,\" she said. In their anthology, *All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave*, editors Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell-Scott, and Barbara Smith described black feminists mobilizing \"a remarkable national response to the Anita Hill--Clarence Thomas controversy. In 1992, a feminist group began a nationwide fundraising campaign and then obtained matching state funds to endow a professorship at the University of Oklahoma College of Law in honor of Hill. Conservative Oklahoma state legislators reacted by demanding Hill\'s resignation from the university, then introducing a bill to prohibit the university from accepting donations from out-of-state residents, and finally attempting to pass legislation to close down the law school. Elmer Zinn Million, a local activist, compared Hill to Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of President Kennedy. Certain officials at the university attempted to revoke Hill\'s tenure. After five years of pressure, Hill resigned. The University of Oklahoma Law School defunded the Anita F. Hill professorship in May 1999, without the position having ever been filled.
On April 25, 2019, the presidential campaign team for Joe Biden for the 2020 United States presidential election disclosed that he had called Hill to express \"his regret for what she endured\" in his role as the chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, presiding over the Thomas confirmation hearings. Hill said the call from Biden left her feeling \"deeply unsatisfied\". On June 13, 2019, Hill clarified that she did not consider Biden\'s actions disqualifying, and would be open to voting for him. In May 2020, Hill argued that sexual assault allegations made against Donald Trump as well as the sexual assault allegation against Biden should be investigated and their results \"made available to the public.\"
On September 5, 2020, it was reported that Hill had vowed to vote for Biden and to work with him on gender issues.
## Continued work and advocacy {#continued_work_and_advocacy}
left\|thumb\|upright=.8\|Hill in 2014 speaking at Harvard Law School
Hill continued to teach at the University of Oklahoma, though she spent two years as a visiting professor in California. She resigned her post in October 1996 and finished her final semester of teaching there. In her final semester, she taught a law school seminar on civil rights. An endowed chair was created in her name, but was later defunded without ever having been filled.
Hill accepted a position as a visiting scholar at the Institute for the Study of Social Change at University of California, Berkeley in January 1997, but soon joined the faculty of Brandeis University---first at the Women\'s Studies Program, later moving to the Heller School for Social Policy and Management. In 2011, she also took a counsel position with the Civil Rights & Employment Practice group of the plaintiffs\' law firm Cohen Milstein.
Over the years, Hill has provided commentary on gender and race issues on national television programs, including *60 Minutes*, *Face the Nation*, and *Meet the Press*. She has been a speaker on the topic of commercial law as well as race and women\'s rights. She is also the author of articles that have been published in *The New York Times* and *Newsweek* and has contributed to many scholarly and legal publications in the areas of international commercial law, bankruptcy, and civil rights.
In 1995, Hill co-edited *Race, Gender and Power in America: The Legacy of the Hill-Thomas Hearings* with Emma Coleman Jordan. In 1997 Hill published her autobiography, *Speaking Truth to Power*, in which she chronicled her role in the Clarence Thomas confirmation controversy and wrote that creating a better society had been a motivating force in her life. She contributed the piece \"The Nature of the Beast: Sexual Harassment\" to the 2003 anthology *Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women\'s Anthology for a New Millennium*, edited by Robin Morgan. In 2011, Hill published her second book, *Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home*, which focuses on the sub-prime lending crisis that resulted in the foreclosure of many homes owned by African-Americans. She calls for a new understanding about the importance of a home and its place in the American Dream. On March 26, 2015, the Brandeis Board of Trustees unanimously voted to recognize Hill with a promotion to Private University Professor of Social Policy, Law, and Women\'s Studies.
On December 16, 2017, the Commission on Sexual Harassment and Advancing Equality in the Workplace was formed, selecting Hill to lead its charge against sexual harassment in the entertainment industry. The new initiative was spearheaded by co-chair of the Nike Foundation Maria Eitel, venture capitalist Freada Kapor Klein, Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy and talent attorney Nina Shaw. The report found not only a saddening prevalence of continued bias but also stark differences in how varying demographics perceived discrimination and harassment.
In September 2018, Hill wrote an op-ed in *The New York Times* regarding sexual assault allegations made by Christine Blasey Ford during the Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination. On November 8, 2018, Anita Hill spoke at the USC Dornsife\'s event, \"From Social Movement to Social Impact: Putting an End to Sexual Harassment in the Workplace\".
## Writings
In 1994, Hill wrote a tribute to Thurgood Marshall, the first African American Supreme Court Justice who preceded Clarence Thomas, titled \"A Tribute to Thurgood Marshall: A Man Who Broke with Tradition on Issues of Race and Gender\". She outlined Marshall\'s contributions to the principles of equality as a judge and how his work has affected the lives of African Americans, specifically African American women.
On October 20, 1998, Hill published the book *Speaking Truth to Power*. Throughout much of the book she gives details on her side of the sexual harassment controversy, and her professional relationship with Clarence Thomas. Aside from that, she also provides a glimpse of what her personal life was like all the way from her childhood days growing up in Oklahoma to her position as a law professor.`{{page needed|date=November 2016}}`{=mediawiki}
Hill became a proponent for women\'s rights and feminism. This can be seen through the chapter she wrote in the 2007 book *Women and leadership: the state of play and strategies for change*. She wrote about women judges and why, in her opinion, they play such a large role in balancing the judicial system. She argues that since women and men have different life experiences, ways of thinking, and histories, both are needed for a balanced court system. She writes that in order for the best law system to be created in the United States, all people need the ability to be represented.
In 2011, Hill\'s second book, *Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home* was published. She discusses the relationship between the home and the American Dream. She also exposes the inequalities within gender and race and home ownership. She argues that inclusive democracy is more important than debates about legal rights. She uses her own history and history of other African American women such as Nannie Helen Burroughs, in order to strengthen her argument for reimagining equality altogether.
On September 28, 2021, Hill published the book *Believing: Our Thirty-Year Journey to End Gender Violence*.
## Awards and recognition {#awards_and_recognition}
Hill received the American Bar Association\'s Commission on Women in the Profession\'s \"Women of Achievement\" award in 1992. In 2005, Hill was selected as a Fletcher Foundation Fellow. In 2008 she was awarded the Louis P. and Evelyn Smith First Amendment Award by the Ford Hall Forum. She also serves on the board of trustees for Southern Vermont College in Bennington, Vermont. She was inducted into the Oklahoma Women\'s Hall of Fame in 1993. On January 7, 2017, Hill was inducted as an honorary member of Zeta Phi Beta sorority at their National Executive Board Meeting in Dallas, Texas. The Wing\'s Washington, D.C. location has a phone booth dedicated to Hill.
Minor planet 6486 Anitahill, discovered by Eleanor Helin, is named in her honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on November 8, 2019 (`{{small|[[Minor Planet Circulars|M.P.C.]] 117229}}`{=mediawiki}).
### Honorary doctorates {#honorary_doctorates}
- 2001: Simmons University
- 2001: Dillard University
- 2003: Smith College
- 2007: Lasell University
- 2008: Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts
- 2013: Mount Ida College
- 2017: Emerson College
- 2018: Wesleyan University
- 2019: Lesley University
- 2022: Mount Holyoke College
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
- In 1991, the television sitcom *Designing Women* built its episode \"The Strange Case of Clarence and Anita\" around the hearings on the Clarence Thomas nomination. The following season in the episode \"The Odyssey\", the characters imagined what would happen if new president Bill Clinton nominated Anita Hill to the Supreme Court to sit next to Clarence Thomas.
- Hill is referenced in the 1992 Sonic Youth song \"Youth Against Fascism.\"
- Her case also inspired the 1994 *Law & Order* episode \"Virtue\", about a young lawyer who feels pressured to sleep with her supervisor at her law firm.
- In the 1996 television film, *Hostile Advances: The Kerry Ellison Story*, Anita Hill\'s testimony is being watched at the bar by main character Kerry Ellison. The film is a true story about a landmark sexual harassment case.
- Anita Hill is mentioned in *The X-Files* episode \"Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man\", which aired November 17, 1996.
- In the 1996 film *Jerry Maguire*, after Tom Cruise\'s character makes a pass at his employee (played by Renee Zellweger), he apologizes with, \"I feel like Clarence Thomas.\"
- In 1999, Ernest Dickerson directed *Strange Justice*, a film based on the Anita Hill--Clarence Thomas controversy.
- Anita Hill is interviewed -- unrelated to the Clarence Thomas case -- about the film *The Tin Drum* in the documentary *Banned in Oklahoma* (2004), included in The Criterion Collection DVD of the film (2004).
- Hill\'s testimony is briefly shown in the 2005 film *North Country* about the first class action lawsuit surrounding sexual harassment.
- Hill was the subject of the 2013 documentary film *Anita* by director Freida Lee Mock, which chronicles her experience during the Clarence Thomas scandal.
- The actor Kerry Washington portrayed Hill in the 2016 HBO film *Confirmation*.
- In 2018, entertainer John Oliver interviewed Hill on his television program *Last Week Tonight* during which Hill answered various questions and concerns about workplace sexual harassment in the present day.
- Hill has been interviewed by Stephen Colbert on *The Late Show* twice, once in 2018 and again in 2021.
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August 10
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Audio signal processing
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**Audio signal processing** is a subfield of signal processing that is concerned with the electronic manipulation of audio signals. Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves---longitudinal waves which travel through air, consisting of compressions and rarefactions. The energy contained in audio signals or sound power level is typically measured in decibels. As audio signals may be represented in either digital or analog format, processing may occur in either domain. Analog processors operate directly on the electrical signal, while digital processors operate mathematically on its digital representation.
## History
The motivation for audio signal processing began at the beginning of the 20th century with inventions like the telephone, phonograph, and radio that allowed for the transmission and storage of audio signals. Audio processing was necessary for early radio broadcasting, as there were many problems with studio-to-transmitter links. The theory of signal processing and its application to audio was largely developed at Bell Labs in the mid 20th century. Claude Shannon and Harry Nyquist\'s early work on communication theory, sampling theory and pulse-code modulation (PCM) laid the foundations for the field. In 1957, Max Mathews became the first person to synthesize audio from a computer, giving birth to computer music.
Major developments in digital audio coding and audio data compression include differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) by C. Chapin Cutler at Bell Labs in 1950, linear predictive coding (LPC) by Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966, adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) by P. Cummiskey, Nikil S. Jayant and James L. Flanagan at Bell Labs in 1973, discrete cosine transform (DCT) coding by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974, and modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) coding by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley at the University of Surrey in 1987. LPC is the basis for perceptual coding and is widely used in speech coding, while MDCT coding is widely used in modern audio coding formats such as MP3 and Advanced Audio Coding (AAC).
## Types
### Analog
An analog audio signal is a continuous signal represented by an electrical voltage or current that is *analogous* to the sound waves in the air. Analog signal processing then involves physically altering the continuous signal by changing the voltage or current or charge via electrical circuits.
Historically, before the advent of widespread digital technology, analog was the only method by which to manipulate a signal. Since that time, as computers and software have become more capable and affordable, digital signal processing has become the method of choice. However, in music applications, analog technology is often still desirable as it often produces nonlinear responses that are difficult to replicate with digital filters.
### Digital
A digital representation expresses the audio waveform as a sequence of symbols, usually binary numbers. This permits signal processing using digital circuits such as digital signal processors, microprocessors and general-purpose computers. Most modern audio systems use a digital approach as the techniques of digital signal processing are much more powerful and efficient than analog domain signal processing.
## Applications
Processing methods and application areas include storage, data compression, music information retrieval, speech processing, localization, acoustic detection, transmission, noise cancellation, acoustic fingerprinting, sound recognition, synthesis, and enhancement (e.g. equalization, filtering, level compression, echo and reverb removal or addition, etc.).
### Audio broadcasting {#audio_broadcasting}
Audio signal processing is used when broadcasting audio signals in order to enhance their fidelity or optimize for bandwidth or latency. In this domain, the most important audio processing takes place just before the transmitter. The audio processor here must prevent or minimize overmodulation, compensate for non-linear transmitters (a potential issue with medium wave and shortwave broadcasting), and adjust overall loudness to the desired level.
### Active noise control {#active_noise_control}
Active noise control is a technique designed to reduce unwanted sound. By creating a signal that is identical to the unwanted noise but with the opposite polarity, the two signals cancel out due to destructive interference.
### Audio synthesis {#audio_synthesis}
Audio synthesis is the electronic generation of audio signals. A musical instrument that accomplishes this is called a synthesizer. Synthesizers can either imitate sounds or generate new ones. Audio synthesis is also used to generate human speech using speech synthesis.
### Audio effects {#audio_effects}
Audio effects alter the sound of a musical instrument or other audio source. Common effects include distortion, often used with electric guitar in electric blues and rock music; dynamic effects such as volume pedals and compressors, which affect loudness; filters such as wah-wah pedals and graphic equalizers, which modify frequency ranges; modulation effects, such as chorus, flangers and phasers; pitch effects such as pitch shifters; and time effects, such as reverb and delay, which create echoing sounds and emulate the sound of different spaces.
Musicians, audio engineers and record producers use effects units during live performances or in the studio, typically with electric guitar, bass guitar, electronic keyboard or electric piano. While effects are most frequently used with electric or electronic instruments, they can be used with any audio source, such as acoustic instruments, drums, and vocals.
### Computer audition {#computer_audition}
Computer audition (CA) or machine listening is the general field of study of algorithms and systems for audio interpretation by machines. Since the notion of what it means for a machine to \"hear\" is very broad and somewhat vague, computer audition attempts to bring together several disciplines that originally dealt with specific problems or had a concrete application in mind. The engineer Paris Smaragdis, interviewed in *Technology Review*, talks about these systems {{\--}} \"software that uses sound to locate people moving through rooms, monitor machinery for impending breakdowns, or activate traffic cameras to record accidents.\"
Inspired by models of human audition, CA deals with questions of representation, transduction, grouping, use of musical knowledge and general sound semantics for the purpose of performing intelligent operations on audio and music signals by the computer. Technically this requires a combination of methods from the fields of signal processing, auditory modelling, music perception and cognition, pattern recognition, and machine learning, as well as more traditional methods of artificial intelligence for musical knowledge representation.
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Alfonso Leng
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**Alfonso Leng Haygus** (11 February 1884 -- 11 November 1974) was a post-romantic composer of classical music. He was born in Santiago, Chile. He wrote the first important symphonic work in Chilean tradition, \"La Muerte de Alcino\", a symphonic poem inspired by the novel of Pedro Prado. He composed many art songs in different languages and important piano pieces, like the five \"Doloras\" (1914), which he later orchestrated and are normally played in concerts in Chile and Latin America. He won the National Art Prize in 1957.
Leng was also an accomplished dentist in Santiago. As a dentist, he was the main founder of the dentistry faculty of the University of Chile, and he was eventually elected as the first dean.
Leng was the nephew of composer Carmela Mackenna.
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Adamic language
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The **Adamic language**, according to Jewish tradition (as recorded in the *midrashim*) and some Christians, is the language spoken by Adam (and possibly Eve) in the Garden of Eden. It is variously interpreted as either the language used by God to address Adam (the divine language), or the language invented by Adam with which he named all things (including Eve), as in the second Genesis creation narrative (`{{bibleverse|Genesis|2:19|KJV}}`{=mediawiki}).
In the Middle Ages, various Jewish commentators held that Adam spoke Hebrew, a view also addressed in various ways by the late medieval Italian poet Dante Alighieri. In the early modern period, some authors continued to discuss the possibility of an Adamic language, some continuing to hold to the idea that it was Hebrew, while others such as John Locke were more skeptical. According to Ethiopian and Eritrean traditions, the ancient Semitic language of Geʽez is the language of Adam, the first and original language. More recently, a variety of Mormon authors have expressed various opinions about the nature of the Adamic language.
## Patristic period {#patristic_period}
Augustine addresses the issue in *The City of God*. While not explicit, the implication of there being but one human language prior to the Tower of Babel\'s collapse is that the language, which was preserved by Heber and his son Peleg, and which is recognized as the language passed down to Abraham and his descendants, is the language that would have been used by Adam.
## Middle Ages {#middle_ages}
Traditional Jewish exegesis such as Midrash says that Adam spoke the Hebrew language because the names he gives Eve -- *Isha* and *Chava* -- only make sense in Hebrew. By contrast, Kabbalah assumed an \"eternal Torah\" which was not identical to the Torah written in Hebrew. Thus, Abraham Abulafia in the 13th century assumed that the language spoken in Paradise had been different from Hebrew, and rejected the claim then-current also among Christian authors, that a child left unexposed to linguistic stimulus would automatically begin to speak in Hebrew. Both Muslim and Christian Arabs, such as Sulayman al-Ghazzi, considered Syriac the language spoken by Adam and Eve.
Umberto Eco (1993) notes that Genesis is ambiguous on whether the language of Adam was preserved by Adam\'s descendants until the confusion of tongues, or if it began to evolve naturally even before Babel.
Dante Alighieri addresses the topic in his *De vulgari eloquentia* (1302--1305). He argues that the Adamic language is of divine origin and therefore unchangeable. He also notes that according to Genesis, the first speech act is due to Eve, addressing the serpent, and not to Adam.
In his *Divine Comedy* (c. 1308--1320), however, Dante changes his view to another that treats the Adamic language as the product of Adam. This had the consequence that it could no longer be regarded as immutable, and hence Hebrew could not be regarded as identical with the language of Paradise. Dante concludes (*Paradiso* XXVI) that Hebrew is a derivative of the language of Adam. In particular, the chief Hebrew name for God in scholastic tradition, *El*, must be derived of a different Adamic name for God, which Dante gives as *I*.
## Early modern period {#early_modern_period}
### Proponents
Elizabethan scholar John Dee makes references to a language he called \"Angelical\", which he recorded in his private journals and those of scryer Edward Kelley. Dee\'s journals did not describe the language as \"Enochian\", instead preferring \"Angelical\", the \"Celestial Speech\", the \"Language of Angels\", the \"First Language of God-Christ\", the \"Holy Language\", or \"Adamical\" because, according to Dee\'s Angels, it was used by Adam in Paradise to name all things. The language was later dubbed Enochian, due to Dee\'s assertion that the Biblical Patriarch Enoch had been the last human (before Dee and Kelley) to know the language.
Dutch physician, linguist, and humanist Johannes Goropius Becanus (1519--1572) theorized in *Origines Antwerpianae* (1569) that Antwerpian Babrantic, spoken in the region between the Scheldt and Meuse Rivers, was the original language spoken in Paradise. Goropius believed that the most ancient language on Earth would be the simplest language, and that the simplest language would contain mostly short words. Since Brabantic has a higher number of short words than do Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, Goropius reasoned that it was the older language. His work influenced that of Simon Stevin (1548--1620), who espoused similar ideas in \"Uytspraeck van de weerdicheyt der Duytse tael\", a chapter in *De Beghinselen Der Weeghconst* (1586).
### Opponents
By the 17th century, the existence and nature of the alleged Adamic language was commonly discussed amongst European Jewish and Christian mystics and primitive linguists. Robert Boyle (1627--1691) was skeptical that Hebrew was the language best capable of describing the nature of things, stating:
> I could never find, that the Hebrew names of animals, mentioned in the beginning of Genesis, argued a (much) clearer insight into their natures, than did the names of the same or some other animals in Greek, or other languages (1665:45).
John Locke (1632--1704) expressed similar skepticism in his *An Essay Concerning Human Understanding* (1690).
## Modern period {#modern_period}
### Latter Day Saint movement {#latter_day_saint_movement}
Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, in his revision of the Bible, declared the Adamic language to have been \"pure and undefiled\". Some Mormons believe it to be the language of God. Glossolalia, or speaking in tongues, was commonplace in the early years of the movement, and it was commonly believed that the incomprehensible language spoken during these incidents was the language of Adam. However, this belief seems to have never been formally or officially adopted.
Some other early Latter Day Saint leaders, including Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and Elizabeth Ann Whitney, claimed to have received several words in the Adamic language by revelation. Some Latter Day Saints believe that the Adamic language is the \"pure language\" spoken of by Zephaniah and that it will be restored as the universal language of humankind at the end of the world.
Apostle Orson Pratt declared that \"Ahman\", part of the name of the settlement \"Adam-ondi-Ahman\" in Daviess County, Missouri, was the name of God in the Adamic language. An 1832 handwritten page from the Joseph Smith Papers, titled \"A Sample of the Pure Language\", and reportedly dictated by Smith to \"Br. Johnson\", asserts that the name of God is *Awman*.
The Latter Day Saint endowment prayer circle once included use of the words \"Pay Lay Ale\". These untranslated words are no longer used in temple ordinances and have been replaced by an English version, \"O God, hear the words of my mouth\". Some believe that the \"Pay Lay Ale\" sentence is derived from the Hebrew phrase \"pe le-El\" (*פה לאל*), \"mouth to God\". \"Pay Lay Ale\" was identified in the temple ceremony as words from the \"pure Adamic language\".
Other words thought by some Latter Day Saints to derive from the Adamic language include *deseret* (\"honey bee\") and *Ahman* (\"God\").
The Book of Moses refers to \"a book of remembrance\" written in the language of Adam.
### Goidelic languages {#goidelic_languages}
Nicholas Wolf writes that 19th-century Irish language speakers and publications claim that Irish (or some Goidelic language) is a language of Biblical primacy comparable to Hebrew, with some claiming it was the language of Adam.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
In the videogame *Indiana Jones and the Great Circle*, the language Adamic is discovered by the protagonist as an early human language spoken by giants, which was adapted into Egyptian and Sumerian in ancient times. It is also represented on stone tablets, resembling logographic writing systems of the early Bronze Age.
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Avery Hopwood
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**James Avery Hopwood** (May 28, 1882 -- July 1, 1928) was an American playwright of the Jazz Age. He had four plays running simultaneously on Broadway in 1920, namely \"The Gold Diggers,\" \"The Bat\" and \"Spanish Love\" and \"Ladies\' Night (In a Turkish Bath)\".
## Early life {#early_life}
Hopwood was born to James and Jule Pendergast Hopwood on May 28, 1882, in Cleveland, Ohio. He graduated from Cleveland\'s West High School in 1900. In 1901, he began attending the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. However, his family experienced financial difficulties, so for his second year he transferred to Adelbert College. He returned to the University of Michigan in the fall of 1903, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1905.
## Career
Hopwood started out as a journalist for the *Cleveland Leader* as its New York correspondent, but within a year had his first play, *Clothes* (1906), produced on Broadway, with the aid of playwright Channing Pollock. Hopwood eventually became known as \"The Playboy Playwright\" and specialized in comedies and farces, some of them with material considered risqué at the time. One play, *The Demi-Virgin* in 1921, prompted a court case because of its suggestive subject matter, including a risque game of cards, \"Stripping Cupid\". The case was dismissed.
His many plays included *Nobody\'s Widow* (1910), starring Blanche Bates; *Fair and Warmer* (1915), starring Madge Kennedy (filmed in 1919); *The Gold Diggers* (1919), starring Ina Claire in New York and Tallulah Bankhead in London; (filmed in 1923 as *The Gold Diggers*, in 1928 as *Gold Diggers of Broadway* and also as *Gold Diggers of 1933*); *Ladies\' Night*, 1920, starring Charlie Ruggles (filmed in 1928); the famous mystery play *The Bat* (with Mary Roberts Rinehart), 1920 (filmed in 1926 as *The Bat*, in 1930 as *The Bat Whispers,* and in 1959 as *The Bat*); *Getting Gertie\'s Garter* (with Wilson Collison), 1921, starring Hazel Dawn (filmed in 1927 and 1945); *The Demi-Virgin*, 1921, also starring Dawn; *The Alarm Clock*, 1923, translated from the French; *The Best People* (with David Gray), 1924 (filmed in 1925 and as *Fast and Loose* in 1930 with Clara Bow); the song-farce *Naughty Cinderella*, 1925, starring Irène Bordoni and *The Garden of Eden* in 1927, with Tallulah Bankhead in London and Miriam Hopkins in New York; (filmed in 1928 as *The Garden of Eden*).
## Personal life {#personal_life}
In 1906, Hopwood was introduced to writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten. The two became close friends and were sometimes sexual partners. In the 1920s Hopwood had a tumultuous and abusive romantic relationship with fellow Cleveland-born playwright John Floyd. Although Hopwood announced to the press in 1924 that he was engaged to vaudeville dancer and choreographer Rosa Rolanda, Van Vechten confirmed in later years that it was a publicity stunt. Rolanda would later marry caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias.
On the evening of July 1, 1928, at Juan-les-Pins on the French Riviera, Hopwood suffered a fatal heart attack while swimming. He was buried in Riverside Cemetery, Cleveland. His mother, Jule Hopwood, inherited a large trust from him, but he had not made arrangements for the disposition of other items, including literary rights. While she was working through the legal issues with his estate, Jule Hopwood fell ill and died on March 1, 1929. She was buried next to her son.
## Legacy
Hopwood\'s plays were very successful commercially, but they did not have the lasting literary significance he hoped to achieve.
### Hopwood Award {#hopwood_award}
The terms of Hopwood\'s will left a substantial portion of his estate to his alma mater, the University of Michigan, for the establishment of the Avery Hopwood and Jule Hopwood Creative Writing Awards. The bequest stipulated: \"It is especially desired that students competing for prizes shall be allowed the widest possible latitude, and that the new, the unusual, and the radical shall be especially encouraged.\" Famous Hopwood award winners include Robert Hayden, Marge Piercy, Arthur Miller, Betty Smith, Lawrence Kasdan, John Ciardi, Mary Gaitskill, Edmund White, Nancy Willard, Frank O\'Hara, and Steve Hamilton.
### *The Great Bordello* {#the_great_bordello}
Throughout his life, Hopwood worked on a novel that he hoped would \"expose\" the strictures the commercial theater machine imposed on playwrights, but the manuscript was never published. Jack Sharrar recovered the manuscript for this novel in 1982 during his research for *Avery Hopwood, His Life and Plays*. The novel was published in July 2011 by Mondial Books (New York) as *The Great Bordello, a Story of the Theatre*, edited and with an Afterword by Sharrar.
## Works
- *Clothes* (1906) with Channing Pollock
- *This Woman and This Man* (1909)
- *Seven Days* (1909) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
- *Judy Forgot* (1910)
- *Nobody\'s Widow* (1910)
- *Somewhere Else* (1913)
- *Fair and Warmer* (1915) Remains popular in Germany (*Der Mustergatte*) and Scandinavia (*Gröna hissen*)
- *Sadie Love* (1915)
- *Our Little Wife* (1916)
- *Double Exposure* (1918)
- *Tumble In* (1919, musical version of *Seven Days*)
- *The Gold Diggers* (1919)
- *The Girl in the Limousine* (1919) with Wilson Collison
- *Ladies\' Night* (1920) with Charlton Andrews
- *Spanish Love* (1920, Adaptation of *María del Carmen* by Josep Feliu i Codina) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
- *The Bat* (1920) with Mary Roberts Rinehart
- *Getting Gertie\'s Garter* (1921) with Wilson Collison
- *The Demi-Virgin* (1921)
- *Why Men Leave Home* (1922)
- *Little Miss Bluebeard* (1923, Adaptation of *Kisasszony férje* by Gábor Drégely)
- *The Alarm Clock* (1923, Adaptation of *La Sonnette d\'alarme* by Maurice Hennequin and Romain Coolus)
- *The Best People* (1924) with David Gray
- *The Harem* (1924) with Ernest Vajda
- *Naughty Cinderella* (1925, Adaptation of *Pouche* by René Peter and Henri Falk)
- *The Garden of Eden* (1927, Adaptation of *Der Garten Eden* by Rudolf Bernauer and Rudolf Österreicher)
## Filmography
- *Clothes* (1914, based on *Clothes*)
- *Judy Forgot* (1915, based on *Judy Forgot*)
- *Our Little Wife* (1918, based on *Our Little Wife*)
- *Sadie Love* (1919, based on *Sadie Love*)
- *Fair and Warmer* (1919, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
- *Guilty of Love* (1920, based on *This Woman and This Man*)
- *Clothes* (1920, based on *Clothes*)
- *The Little Clown* (1921, based on *The Little Clown*)
- *The Gold Diggers* (1923, based on *The Gold Diggers*)
- *Why Men Leave Home* (1924, based on *Why Men Leave Home*)
- *The Girl in the Limousine* (1924, based on *The Girl in the Limousine*)
- *Miss Bluebeard* (1925, based on *Little Miss Bluebeard*)
- *The Best People* (1925, based on *The Best People*)
- *The Bat* (1926, based on *The Bat*)
- *Good and Naughty* (1926, based on *Naughty Cinderella*)
- *Nobody\'s Widow* (1927, based on *Nobody\'s Widow*)
- *Getting Gertie\'s Garter* (1927, based on *Getting Gertie\'s Garter*)
- *The Garden of Eden* (1928, based on *The Garden of Eden*)
- *Ladies\' Night in a Turkish Bath* (1928, based on *Ladies\' Night*)
- *Gold Diggers of Broadway* (1929, based on *The Gold Diggers*)
- *Her Wedding Night* (1930, based on *Little Miss Bluebeard*)
- *Let\'s Get Married* (France, 1931, based on *Little Miss Bluebeard*)
- *Su noche de bodas* (Spain, 1931, based on *Little Miss Bluebeard*)
- *Ich heirate meinen Mann* (Germany, 1931, based on *Little Miss Bluebeard*)
- *A Minha Noite de Núpcias* (Portugal, 1931, based on *Little Miss Bluebeard*)
- *Fast and Loose* (1930, based on *The Best People*)
- *The Bat Whispers* (1930, based on *The Bat*)
- *This Is the Night* (1932, based on *Naughty Cinderella*)
- *Gold Diggers of 1933* (1933, based on *The Gold Diggers*)
- *Night of the Garter* (UK, 1933, based on *Getting Gertie\'s Garter*)
- *The Model Husband* (Germany, 1937, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
- *Unsere kleine Frau* (Germany, 1938, based on *Our Little Wife*)
- *Mia moglie si diverte* (Italy, 1938, based on *Our Little Wife*)
- *Gröna hissen* (Sweden, 1944, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
- *Getting Gertie\'s Garter* (1945, based on *Getting Gertie\'s Garter*)
- *Painting the Clouds with Sunshine* (1951, based on *The Gold Diggers*)
- *The Green Lift (1952 film)* (Sweden, 1952, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
- *The Model Husband* (West Germany, 1956, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
- *The Bat* (1959, based on *The Bat*)
- *The Model Husband* (Switzerland, 1959, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
- *`{{Interlanguage link multi|Den grønne elevator|da}}`{=mediawiki}* (Denmark, 1961, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
- *Den grønne heisen* (Norway, 1981, based on *Fair and Warmer*)
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