id
int64 39
7.86M
| section
stringlengths 0
4.51M
| length
int64 0
50.1k
| title
stringlengths 1
182
| chunk_id
int64 0
68
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
1,735 |
## Accounts
### The First Council {#the_first_council}
#### Charges
During the same council, Ānanda was charged for an offense by members of the *saṅgha* for having enabled women to join the monastic order. Besides this, he was charged for having forgotten to request the Buddha to specify which offenses of monastic discipline could be disregarded; for having stepped on the Buddha\'s robe; for having allowed women to honor the Buddha\'s body after his death, which was not properly dressed, and during which his body was sullied by their tears; and for having failed to ask the Buddha to continue to live on. Ānanda did not acknowledge these as offenses, but he conceded to do a formal confession anyway, \"\... in faith of the opinion of the venerable elder monks\"`{{em dash}}`{=mediawiki}Ānanda wanted to prevent disruption in the *saṅgha*. With regard to having women ordained, Ānanda answered that he had done this with great effort, because Mahāpajāpati was the Buddha\'s foster-mother who had long provided for him. With regard to not requesting the Buddha to continue to live, many textual traditions have Ānanda respond by saying he was distracted by Māra, though one early Chinese text has Ānanda reply he did not request the Buddha to prolong his life, for fear that this would interfere with the next Buddha Maitreya\'s ministry.
According to the Pāli tradition, the charges were laid after Ānanda had become enlightened and done all the recitations; but the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition has it that the charges were laid before Ānanda became enlightened and started the recitations. In this version, when Ānanda heard that he was banned from the council, he objected that he had not done anything that went against the teaching and discipline of the Buddha. Mahākassapa then listed seven charges to counter Ānanda\'s objection. The charges were similar to the five given in Pāli. Other textual traditions list slightly different charges, amounting to a combined total of eleven charges, some of which are only mentioned in one or two textual traditions. Considering that an enlightened disciple was seen to have overcome all faults, it seems more likely that the charges were laid before Ānanda\'s attainment than after.
Indologists von Hinüber and Jean Przyluski argue that the account of Ānanda being charged with offenses during the council indicate tensions between competing early Buddhist schools, i.e. schools that emphasized the discourses (*link=no*, *link=no*) and schools that emphasized monastic discipline. These differences have affected the scriptures of each tradition: e.g. the Pāli and Mahīśāsaka textual traditions portray a Mahākassapa that is more critical of Ānanda than that the Sarvāstivāda tradition depicts him, reflecting a preference for discipline above discourse on the part of the former traditions, and a preference for discourse for the latter. Another example is the recitations during the First Council. The Pāli texts state that Upāli, the person who was responsible for the recitation of the monastic discipline, recited `{{em|before}}`{=mediawiki} Ānanda does: again, monastic discipline above discourse. Analyzing six recensions of different textual traditions of the *Mahāparinibbāna Sutta* extensively, Bareau distinguished two layers in the text, an older and a newer one, the former belonging to the compilers that emphasized discourse, the latter to the ones that emphasized discipline; the former emphasizing the figure of Ānanda, the latter Mahākassapa. He further argued that the passage on Māra obstructing the Buddha was inserted in the fourth century BCE, and that Ānanda was blamed for Māra\'s doing by inserting the passage of Ānanda\'s forgetfulness in the third century BCE. The passage in which the Buddha was ill and reminded Ānanda to be his own refuge, on the other hand, Bareau regarded as very ancient, pre-dating the passages blaming Māra and Ānanda. In conclusion, Bareau, Przyluski and Horner argued that the offenses Ānanda were charged with were a later interpolation. Findly disagrees, however, because the account in the texts of monastic discipline fits in with the *Mahāparinibbāna Sutta* and with Ānanda\'s character as generally depicted in the texts.
#### Historicity
Tradition states that the First Council lasted for seven months. Scholars doubt, however, whether the entire canon was really recited during the First Council, because the early texts contain different accounts on important subjects such as meditation. It may be, though, that early versions were recited of what is now known as the *Vinaya-piṭaka* and *Sutta-piṭaka*. Nevertheless, many scholars, from the late 19th century onward, have considered the historicity of the First Council improbable. Some scholars, such as orientalists Louis de La Vallée-Poussin and D.P. Minayeff, thought there must have been assemblies after the Buddha\'s death, but considered only the main characters and some events before or after the First Council historical. Other scholars, such as Bareau and Indologist Hermann Oldenberg, considered it likely that the account of the First Council was written after the Second Council, and based on that of the Second, since there were not any major problems to solve after the Buddha\'s death, or any other need to organize the First Council. Much material in the accounts, and even more so in the more developed later accounts, deal with Ānanda as the unsullied intermediary who passes on the legitimate teaching of the Buddha. On the other hand, archaeologist Louis Finot, Indologist E. E. Obermiller and to some extent Indologist Nalinaksha Dutt thought the account of the First Council was authentic, because of the correspondences between the Pāli texts and the Sanskrit traditions. Indologist Richard Gombrich, following Bhikkhu Sujato and Bhikkhu Brahmali\'s arguments, states that \"it makes good sense to believe \... that large parts of the Pali Canon do preserve for us the *Buddha-vacana*, \'the Buddha\'s words\', transmitted to us via his disciple Ānanda and the First Council\".
| 942 |
Ānanda
| 6 |
1,735 |
## Accounts
### Role and character {#role_and_character}
Ānanda was recognized as one of the most important disciples of the Buddha. In the lists of the disciples given in the *Aṅguttara Nikāya*`{{refn |group=note |Page i. xiv.}}`{=mediawiki} and *Saṃyutta Nikāya*, each of the disciples is declared to be foremost in some quality. Ānanda is mentioned more often than any other disciple: he is named foremost in conduct, in attention to others, in power of memory, in erudition and in resoluteness. Ānanda was the subject of a sermon of praise delivered by the Buddha just before the Buddha\'s death, as described in the *Mahāparinibbāna Sutta*:`{{refn |group=note |[[Digha Nikāya|DN]] 16.}}`{=mediawiki} it is a sermon about a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful toward others. In the texts he is depicted as compassionate in his relations with lay people, a compassion he learnt from the Buddha. The Buddha relays that both monastics and lay people were pleased to see Ānanda, and were pleased to hear him recite and teach the Buddha\'s teaching. Moreover, Ānanda was known for his organizational skills, assisting the Buddha with secretary-like duties. In many ways, Ānanda did not only serve the personal needs of the Buddha, but also the needs of the still young, growing institute of the *saṅgha*.
Moreover, because of his ability to remember the many teachings of the Buddha, he is described as foremost in \"having heard much\" (*link=no*, Sanskrit: `{{Transliteration|sa|bahuśruta}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{Lang-zh|p=Duowen Diyi}}`{=mediawiki}). Ānanda was known for his exceptional memory, which is essential in helping him to remember the Buddha\'s teachings. He also taught other disciples to memorize Buddhist doctrine. For these reasons, Ānanda became known as the \"Treasurer of the Dhamma\" (*link=no*, Sanskrit: `{{Transliteration|sa|Dharma-bhaṇḍāgārika}}`{=mediawiki}), *Dhamma* (Sanskrit: `{{Transliteration|sa|Dharma}}`{=mediawiki}) referring to the doctrine of the Buddha. Being the person who had accompanied the Buddha throughout a great part of his life, Ānanda was in many ways the living memory of the Buddha, without which the *saṅgha* would be much worse off. Besides his memory skills, Ānanda also stood out in that, as the Buddha\'s cousin, he dared to ask the Buddha direct questions. For example, after the death of Mahāvira and the depicted subsequent conflicts among the Jain community, Ānanda asked the Buddha how such problems could be prevented after the Buddha\'s death. However, Findly argues that Ānanda\'s duty to memorize the Buddha\'s teachings accurately and without distortion, was \"both a gift and a burden\". Ānanda was able to remember many discourses verbatim, but this also went hand-in-hand with a habit of not reflecting on those teachings, being afraid that reflection might distort the teachings as he heard them. At multiple occasions, Ānanda was warned by other disciples that he should spend less time on conversing to lay people, and more time on his own practice. Even though Ānanda regularly practiced meditation for long hours, he was less experienced in meditative concentration than other leading disciples. Thus, judgment of Ānanda\'s character depends on whether one judges his accomplishments as a monk or his accomplishments as an attendant, and person memorizing the discourses. left\|thumb \|East Javanese relief of Ānanda, depicted weeping \|alt=Monk in forest rubbing in his eye. \|upright=1.2 From a literary and didactic point of view, Ānanda often functioned as a kind of foil in the texts, being an unenlightened disciple attending to an enlightened Buddha. Because the run-of the-mill person could identify with Ānanda, the Buddha could through Ānanda convey his teachings to the mass easily. Ānanda\'s character was in many ways a contradiction to that of the Buddha: being unenlightened and someone who made mistakes. At the same time, however, he was completely devoted to service to the Buddha. The Buddha is depicted in the early texts as both a father and a teacher to Ānanda, stern but compassionate. Ānanda was very fond of and attached to the Buddha, willing to give his life for him. He mourned the deaths of both the Buddha and Sāriputta, with whom he enjoyed a close friendship: in both cases Ānanda was very shocked. Ānanda\'s faith in the Buddha, however, constituted more of a faith in a person, especially the Buddha\'s person, as opposed to faith in the Buddha\'s teaching. This is a pattern which comes back in the accounts which lead to the offenses Ānanda was charged with during the First Council. Moreover, Ānanda\'s weaknesses described in the texts were that he was sometimes slow-witted and lacked mindfulness, which became noticeable because of his role as attendant to the Buddha: this involved minor matters like deportment, but also more important matters, such as ordaining a man with no future as a pupil, or disturbing the Buddha at the wrong time. For example, one time Mahākassapa chastised Ānanda in strong words, criticizing the fact that Ānanda was travelling with a large following of young monks who appeared untrained and who had built up a bad reputation. In another episode described in a Sarvāstivāda text, Ānanda is the only disciple who was willing to teach psychic powers to Devadatta, who later would use these in an attempt to destroy the Buddha. According to a Mahīśāsaka text, however, when Devadatta had turned against the Buddha, Ānanda was not persuaded by him, and voted against him in a formal meeting. Ānanda\'s late spiritual growth is much discussed in Buddhist texts, and the general conclusion is that Ānanda was slower than other disciples due to his worldly attachments and his attachment to the person of the Buddha, both of which were rooted in his mediating work between the Buddha and the lay communities.
| 920 |
Ānanda
| 7 |
1,735 |
## Accounts
### Passing on the teaching {#passing_on_the_teaching}
After the Buddha\'s death, some sources say Ānanda stayed mostly in the West of India, in the area of Kosambī (*link=no*), where he taught most of his pupils. Other sources say he stayed in the monastery at Veḷuvana (*link=no*). Several pupils of Ānanda became well-known in their own right. According to post-canonical Sanskrit sources such as the Divyavadāna and the Aśokavadāna, before the Buddha\'s death, the Buddha confided to Ānanda that the latter\'s student Majjhantika (*link=no*) would travel to Udyāna, Kashmir, to bring the teaching of the Buddha there. Mahākassapa made a prediction that later would come true that another of Ānanda\'s future pupils, Sāṇavāsī (*link=no*), would make many gifts to the *saṅgha* at Mathurā, during a feast held from profits of successful business. After this event, Ānanda would successfully persuade Sāṇavāsī to become ordained and be his pupil. Ānanda later persuaded Sāṇavāsī by pointing out that the latter had now made many material gifts, but had not given \"the gift of the Dhamma\". When asked for explanation, Ānanda replied that Sāṇavāsī would give the gift of Dhamma by becoming ordained as a monk, which was reason enough for Sāṇavāsī to make the decision to get ordained.
### Death and relics {#death_and_relics}
thumb \|Partially recovered Indian bas-relief depicting the death of Ānanda. The traditional Buddhist accounts relate that he attained final Nirvana in mid-air above the river Rohīni, leaving relics for followers on both sides of the river.\|alt=Relief with monk meditating at the right, and on the left, half of a skeleton, a kneeling crowned figure and a second figure holding a parasol above the crowned figure \|upright=1.5
Though no Early Buddhist Text provides a date for Ānanda\'s death, according to the Chinese pilgrim monk Faxian (337`{{en dash}}`{=mediawiki}422 CE), Ānanda went on to live 120 years. Following the later timeline, however, Ānanda may have lived to 75`{{en dash}}`{=mediawiki}85 years. Buddhist studies scholar L. S. Cousins dated Ānanda\'s death twenty years after the Buddha\'s.
Ānanda was teaching till the end of his life. According to Mūlasarvāstivāda sources, Ānanda heard a young monk recite a verse incorrectly, and advised him. When the monk reported this to his teacher, the latter objected that \"Ānanda has grown old and his memory is impaired \...\" This prompted Ānanda to attain final Nirvana. He passed on the \"custody of the \[Buddha\'s\] doctrine\" to his pupil Sāṇavāsī and left for the river Ganges. However, according to Pāli sources, when Ānanda was about to die, he decided to spend his final moments in Vesālī instead, and traveled to the river Rohīni. The Mūlasarvāstivāda version expands and says that before reaching the river, he met with a seer called Majjhantika (following the prediction earlier) and five hundred of his followers, who converted to Buddhism. Some sources add that Ānanda passed the Buddha\'s message on to him. When Ānanda was crossing the river, he was followed by King Ajātasattu (*Ajātaśatrū*), who wanted to witness his death and was interested in his remains as relics. Ānanda had once promised Ajāsattu that he would let him know when he would die, and accordingly, Ānanda had informed him. On the other side of the river, however, a group of Licchavis from Vesālī awaited him for the same reason. In the Pāli, there were also two parties interested, but the two parties were the Sākiyan and the Koliyan clans instead. Ānanda realized that his death on either side of the river could anger one of the parties involved. Through a supernatural accomplishment, he therefore surged into the air to levitate and meditate in mid-air, making his body go up in fire, with his relics landing on both banks of the river, or in some versions of the account, splitting in four parts. In this way, Ānanda had pleased all the parties involved. In some other versions of the account, including the Mūlasarvāstivāda version, his death took place on a barge in the middle of the river, however, instead of in mid-air. The remains were divided in two, following the wishes of Ānanda.
Majjhantika later successfully carried out the mission following the Buddha\'s prediction. The latter\'s pupil Upagupta was described to be the teacher of King Aśoka (3rd century BCE). Together with four or five other pupils of Ānanda, Sāṇavāsī and Majjhantika formed the majority of the Second Council, with Majjhantika being Ānanda\'s last pupil. Post-canonical Pāli sources add that Sāṇavāsī had a leading role in the Third Buddhist Council as well. Although little is historically certain, Cousins thought it likely at least one of the leading figures on the Second Council was a pupil of Ānanda, as nearly all the textual traditions mention a connection with Ānanda.
Ajāsattu is said to have built a *stūpa* on top of the Ānanda\'s relics, at the river Rohīni, or according to some sources, the Ganges; the Licchavis had also built a *stūpa* at their side of the river. The Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (602`{{en dash}}`{=mediawiki}64 CE) later visited *stūpas* on both sides of the river Rohīni. Faxian also reported having visited *stūpas* dedicated to Ānanda at the river Rohīni, but also in Mathurā. Moreover, according to the Mūlasarvāstivāda version of the Saṃyukta Āgama, King Aśoka visited and made the most lavish offerings he ever made to a *stūpa*: He explained to his ministers that he did this because \"\[t\]he body of the Tathāgata is the body of dharma(s), pure in nature. He \[Ānanda\] was able to retain it/them all; for this reason the offerings \[to him\] surpass \[all others\]\"`{{em dash}}`{=mediawiki}*body of dharma* here referred to the Buddha\'s teachings as a whole.
In Early Buddhist Texts, Ānanda had reached final Nirvana and would no longer be reborn. But, in contrast with the early texts, according to the Mahāyāna Lotus Sūtra, Ānanda would be born as a Buddha in the future. He would accomplish this slower than the present Buddha, Gotama Buddha, had accomplished this, because Ānanda aspired to becoming a Buddha by applying \"great learning\". Because of this long trajectory and great efforts, however, his enlightenment would be extraordinary and with great splendor.
| 1,013 |
Ānanda
| 8 |
1,735 |
## Legacy
Ānanda is depicted as an eloquent speaker, who often taught about the self and about meditation. There are numerous Buddhist texts attributed to Ānanda, including the *Atthakanāgara Sutta*, about meditation methods to attain Nirvana; a version of the *Bhaddekaratta Sutta* (*link=no*, `{{zh |p=shanye}}`{=mediawiki}), about living in the present moment; the *Sekha Sutta*, about the higher training of a disciple of the Buddha; the *Subha Suttanta*, about the practices the Buddha inspired others to follow. In the *Gopaka-Mogallānasutta*, a conversation took place between Ānanda, the brahmin Gopaka-Mogallāna and the minister Vassakara, the latter being the highest official of the Magadha region. During this conversation, which occurred shortly after the Buddha\'s death, Vassakara asked whether it was decided yet who would succeed the Buddha. Ānanda replied that no such successor had been appointed, but that the Buddhist community took the Buddha\'s teaching and discipline as a refuge instead. Furthermore, the *saṅgha* did not have the Buddha as a master anymore, but they would honor those monks who were virtuous and trustworthy. Besides these *suttas*, a section of the *Theragāthā* is attributed to Ānanda. Even in the texts attributed to the Buddha himself, Ānanda is sometimes depicted giving a name to a particular text, or suggesting a simile to the Buddha to use in his teachings.
In East Asian Buddhism, Ānanda is considered one of the ten principal disciples. In many Indian Sanskrit and East Asian texts, Ānanda is considered the second patriarch of the lineage which transmitted the teaching of the Buddha, with Mahākassapa being the first and Majjhantika or Saṇavāsī being the third. There is an account dating back from the Sarvāstivāda and Mūlasarvāstivāda textual traditions which states that before Mahākassapa died, he bestowed the Buddha\'s teaching on Ānanda as a formal passing on of authority, telling Ānanda to pass the teaching on to Ānanda\'s pupil Saṇavāsī. Later, just before Ānanda died, he did as Mahākassapa had told him to. Buddhist studies scholars Akira Hirakawa and Bibhuti Baruah have expressed skepticism about the teacher`{{en dash}}`{=mediawiki}student relationship between Mahākassapa and Ānanda, arguing that there was discord between the two, as indicated in the early texts. Regardless, it is clear from the texts that a relationship of transmission of teachings is meant, as opposed to an *upajjhāya*`{{en dash}}`{=mediawiki}student relationship in a lineage of ordination: no source indicates Mahākassapa was Ānanda\'s *upajjhāya*. In Mahāyāna iconography, Ānanda is often depicted flanking the Buddha at the right side, together with Mahākassapa at the left. In Theravāda iconography, however, Ānanda is usually not depicted in this manner, and the motif of transmission of the Dhamma through a list of patriarchs is not found in Pāli sources. thumb \|upright \|8th`{{en dash}}`{=mediawiki}9th century Chinese painting, depicting two monks dressed in robes made of pieces. Pāli tradition has it that Ānanda designed the Buddhist monk\'s robe, based on the structure of rice fields.\|alt=Painting with two monks, one with Central Asian traits, holding his index finger against his thumb; one with East Asian traits, holding his hands folded in front.
Because Ānanda was instrumental in founding the *bhikkhunī* community, he has been honored by *bhikkhunīs* for this throughout Buddhist history. The earliest traces of this can be found in the writings of Faxian and Xuan Zang, who reported that *bhikkhunīs* made offerings to a *stūpa* in Ānanda\'s honor during celebrations and observance days. On a similar note, in 5th`{{en dash}}`{=mediawiki}6th-century China and 10th-century Japan, Buddhist texts were composed recommending women to uphold the semi-monastic eight precepts in honor and gratitude of Ānanda. In Japan, this was done through the format of a penance ritual called *keka* (`{{lang-zh|悔過}}`{=mediawiki}). By the 13th century, in Japan a cult-like interest for Ānanda had developed in a number of convents, in which images and *stūpas* were used and ceremonies were held in his honor. Presently, opinion among scholars is divided as to whether Ānanda\'s cult among *bhikkhunīs* was an expression of their dependence on male monastic tradition, or the opposite, an expression of their legitimacy and independence.
Pāli Vinaya texts attribute the design of the Buddhist monk\'s robe to Ānanda. As Buddhism prospered, more laypeople started to donate expensive cloth for robes, which put the monks at risk for theft. To decrease its commercial value, monks therefore cut up the cloth offered, before they sew a robe from it. The Buddha asked Ānanda to think of a model for a Buddhist robe, made from small pieces of cloth. Ānanda designed a standard robe model, based on the rice fields of Magadha, which were divided in sections by banks of earth. Another tradition that is connected to Ānanda is *paritta* recitation. Theravāda Buddhists explain that the custom of sprinkling water during *paritta* chanting originates in Ānanda\'s visit to Vesālī, when he recited the *Ratana Sutta* and sprinkled water from his alms bowl. A third tradition sometimes attributed to Ānanda is the use of Bodhi trees in Buddhism. It is described in the text *Kāliṅgabodhi Jātaka* that Ānanda planted a Bodhi tree as a symbol of the Buddha\'s enlightenment, to give people the chance to pay their respects to the Buddha. This tree and shrine came to be known as the Ānanda Bodhi Tree, said to have grown from a seed from the original Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha is depicted to have attained enlightenment. Many of this type of Bodhi Tree shrines in Southeast Asia were erected following this example. Presently, the Ānanda Bodhi Tree is sometimes identified with a tree at the ruins of Jetavana, Sāvatthi, based on the records of Faxian.
| 919 |
Ānanda
| 9 |
1,735 |
## In art {#in_art}
Between 1856 and 1858 Richard Wagner wrote a draft for an opera libretto based on the legend about Ānanda and the low-caste girl Prakṛti. He left only a fragmentary prose sketch of a work to be called *Die Sieger*, but the topic inspired his later opera *Parsifal*. Furthermore, the draft was used by composer Jonathan Harvey in his 2007 opera Wagner Dream. In Wagner\'s version of the legend, which he based on orientalist Eugène Burnouf\'s translations, the magical spell of Prakṛti\'s mother does not work on Ānanda, and Prakṛti turns to the Buddha to explain her desires for Ānanda. The Buddha replies that a union between Prakṛti and Ānanda is possible, but Prakṛti must agree to the Buddha\'s conditions. Prakṛti agrees, and it is revealed that the Buddha means something else than she does: he asks Prakṛti to ordain as a *bhikkhunī*, and live the celibate life as a kind of sister to Ānanda. At first, Prakṛti weeps in dismay, but after the Buddha explains that her current situation is a result of karma from her previous life, she understands and rejoices in the life of a *bhikkhunī*. Apart from the spiritual themes, Wagner also addresses the faults of the caste system by having the Buddha criticize it.
Drawing from Schopenhauer\'s philosophy, Wagner contrasts desire-driven salvation and true spiritual salvation: by seeking deliverance through the person she loves, Prakṛti only affirms her *will to live* (*italic=yes*), which is blocking her from attaining deliverance. By being ordained as a *bhikkhunī* she strives for her spiritual salvation instead. Thus, the early Buddhist account of Mahāpajāpati\'s ordination is replaced by that of Prakṛti. According to Wagner, by allowing Prakṛti to become ordained, the Buddha also completes his own aim in life: \"\[H\]e regards his existence in the world, whose aim was to benefit all beings, as completed, since he had become able to offer deliverance`{{em dash}}`{=mediawiki}without mediation`{{em dash}}`{=mediawiki}also to woman.\"
The same legend of Ānanda and Prakṛti was made into a short prose play by the Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore, called *Chandalika*. *Chandalika* deals with the themes of spiritual conflict, caste and social equality, and contains a strong critique of Indian society. Just like in the traditional account, Prakṛti falls in love with Ānanda, after he gives her self-esteem by accepting a gift of water from her. Prakṛti\'s mother casts a spell to enchant Ānanda. In Tagore\'s play, however, Prakṛti later regrets what she has done and has the spell revoked
| 412 |
Ānanda
| 10 |
1,738 |
**Anaxarchus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|ə|ɡ|ˈ|z|ɑr|k|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἀνάξαρχος*; c. 380 -- c. 320 BC) was a Greek philosopher of the school of Democritus. Together with Pyrrho, he accompanied Alexander the Great into Asia. The reports of his philosophical views suggest that he was a forerunner of the Greek skeptics.
## Life
Anaxarchus was born at Abdera in Thrace. He was the companion and friend of Alexander the Great in his Asiatic campaigns. His relationship with Alexander, however, was ambiguous, owing to contradictory sources. Some paint Anarxchus as a flatterer, among them Plutarch, who tells a story that at Bactra, in 327 BC in a debate with Callisthenes, Anaxarchus advised all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime. In contrast, others paint Anaxarchus as scathingly ironic towards the monarch. According to Diogenes Laertius, in response to Alexander\'s claim to have been the son of Zeus-Ammon, Anaxarchus pointed to his bleeding wound and remarked, \"See the blood of a mortal, not ichor, such as flows from the veins of the immortal gods.\"
When Alexander was trying to show that he was divine so that the Greeks would perform proskynesis to him, Anaxarchus said that Alexander could \"more justly be considered a god than Dionysus or Heracles\" (Arrian, 104)
Diogenes Laertius says that Anaxarchus earned the enmity of Nicocreon, the tyrant of Cyprus, with an inappropriate joke against tyrants in a banquet in Tyre in 331 BC. Later, when Anaxarchus was forced to land in Cyprus against his will, Nicocreon ordered him to be pounded to death in a mortar. The philosopher endured this torture with fortitude, taunting the king with, \"just pound the bag of Anaxarchus, you do not pound Anaxarchus\". When Nicocreon threatened to cut out his tongue, Anaxarchus himself bit it out and spat it in his face.
| 296 |
Anaxarchus
| 0 |
1,738 |
## Philosophy
Very little is known about his philosophical views. It is thought that he represents a link between the atomism of Democritus, and the skepticism of his own apprentice Pyrrho. He also shares ethical traits with the Cynic and Cyrenaic schools.
Anaxarchus is said to have studied under Diogenes of Smyrna, who in turn studied under Metrodorus of Chios, who used to declare that he knew nothing, not even the fact that he knew nothing. According to Sextus Empiricus, Anaxarchus \"compared existing things to a scene-painting and supposed them to resemble the impressions experienced in sleep or madness.\" It was under the influence of Anaxarchus that Pyrrho is said to have adopted \"a most noble philosophy, . . . taking the form of agnosticism and suspension of judgement.\" Anaxarchus is said to have praised Pyrrho\'s \"indifference and sang-froid.\" He is said to have possessed \"fortitude and contentment in life,\" which earned him the epithet *eudaimonikos* (\"fortunate\").
His skepticism seems to have been pragmatical, postulating that against the uncertainty of existence, the only viable stance is to pursue happiness or *eudaimonia*, for which it is necessary to cultivate indifference or *adiaphora*. According to him, the effort to differentiate truth from falseness through the senses is both useless and detrimental to happiness.
He wrote a work named *About the Monarchs*. In it, he spouses that knowledge is useless without the ability to know when to speak and what to say in every occasion.
Plutarch reports that he told Alexander the Great that there was an infinite number of worlds, causing the latter to become dejected because he had not yet conquered even one
| 272 |
Anaxarchus
| 1 |
1,740 |
***Ancyra*** is a small genus of planthoppers of the family Eurybrachidae and the only genus in the tribe **Ancyrini**. Species in this genus occur in southeast Asia.`{{r|flow}}`{=mediawiki}
## Description
Members of the genus are well known for having a pair of prolonged filaments at the tips of the forewings that arise near a pair of small glossy spots; this creates the impression of a pair of antennae, with corresponding \"eyes\" (a remarkable case of automimicry).`{{r|wickler1968}}`{=mediawiki} The \"false head\" effect is further reinforced by the bugs\' habit of walking backwards when it detects movement nearby, so as to misdirect predators to strike at its rear, rather than at its actual head.
## Taxonomy
The genus *Ancyra* was first named in 1845 by Scottish zoologist Adam White.`{{r|white1845|flow}}`{=mediawiki} It is the only genus of the tribe Ancyrini (subfamily Platybrachinae, family Eurybrachidae).`{{r|flowtribe}}`{=mediawiki} The type species is *Ancyra appendiculata*, the species name meaning *bearing appendages*
| 150 |
Ancyra (planthopper)
| 0 |
1,746 |
**Anaximenes of Lampsacus** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|æ|k|ˈ|s|ɪ|m|ə|ˌ|n|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Λαμψακηνός*; c. 380`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}320 BC) was a Greek rhetorician and historian. He was one of the teachers of Alexander the Great and accompanied him on his campaigns.
## Family
His father was named Aristocles (*Ἀριστοκλῆς*). His nephew (son of his sister), was also named Anaximenes and was a historian.
## Rhetorical works {#rhetorical_works}
Anaximenes was a pupil of Diogenes the Cynic and Zoilus and, like his teacher, wrote a work on Homer. As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of Isocrates and his school. He is generally regarded as the author of the *Rhetoric to Alexander*, an *Art of Rhetoric* included in the traditional corpus of Aristotle\'s works. Quintilian seems to refer to this work under Anaximenes\' name in *Institutio Oratoria* [3.4.9](https://web.archive.org/web/20110721082137/http://honeyl.public.iastate.edu/quintilian/3/chapter4.html#9), as the Italian Renaissance philologist Piero Vettori first recognized. This attribution has, however, been disputed by some scholars.
The [hypothesis](https://books.google.com/books?id=UdyFQ4a9HOMC&pg=PR58) to Isocrates\' *Helen* mentions that Anaximenes, too, had written a *Helen*, \"though it is more a defense speech (*apologia*) than an encomium,\" and concludes that he was \"the man who has written about Helen\" to whom Isocrates refers (Isoc. *Helen* 14). Jebb entertained the possibility that this work survives in the form of the *Encomium of Helen* ascribed to Gorgias: \"It appears not improbable that Anaximenes may have been the real author of the work ascribed to Gorgias.\"
According to Pausanias ([6.18.6](https://books.google.com/books?id=hsLNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA310)), Anaximenes was \"the first who practised the art of speaking extemporaneously.\" He also worked as a logographer, having written the speech prosecuting Phryne according to Diodorus Periegetes (quoted by Athenaeus [XIII.591e](http://www.attalus.org/old/athenaeus13c.html#591)). The \"ethical\" fragments preserved in Stobaeus\' *Florilegium* may represent \"some philosophical book.\"
According to Suda, no rhetor before Anaximenes had invented improvised speeches.
| 284 |
Anaximenes of Lampsacus
| 0 |
1,746 |
## Historical works {#historical_works}
Anaximenes wrote a history of Greece in twelve books, stretching from the gods\' origins to the death of Epaminondas at the Battle of Mantinea (*Hellenica*, *Πρῶται ἱστορίαι*), and a history of Philip of Macedon (*Philippica*). He was a favorite of Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied in his Persian campaigns, and wrote a third historical work on Alexander (however, Pausanias [6.18.6](https://books.google.com/books?id=hsLNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA310) expresses doubt about his authorship of an epic poem on Alexander). He was one of the eight exemplary historiographers included in the Alexandrian canon.
Didymus reports that the work transmitted as speech 11 of Demosthenes (*Against the Letter of Philip*) could be found in almost identical form in Book 7 of Anaximenes\' *Philippica*, and many scholars regard the work as a historiographic composition by Anaximenes. The *Letter of Philip* (speech 12) to which speech 11 seems to respond may also be by Anaximenes, or it may be an authentic letter by Philip, perhaps written with the aid of his advisers. The more ambitious theory of Wilhelm Nitsche, which assigned to Anaximenes a larger part of the Demosthenic corpus (speeches 10-13 and 25, letters 1--4, proems), can be rejected.
Anaximenes was hostile to Theopompus, whom he sought to discredit with a libelous parody, *Trikaranos*, published in Theopompus\' style and under his name, attacking Athens, Sparta, and Thebes. Pausanias wrote: \"*He imitated the style of Theopompus with perfect accuracy, inscribed his name upon the book and sent it round to the cities. Though Anaximenes was the author of the treatise, hatred of Theopompus grew throughout the length of Greece.*\"
Plutarch criticizes Anaximenes, together with Theopompus and Ephorus, for the \"rhetorical effects and grand periods\" these historians implausibly gave to men in the midst of urgent battlefield circumstances (*Praecepta gerendae reipublicae* \[<https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Praecepta_gerendae_reipublicae>\*.html#T803b 803b\]).
## Saving Lampsacus {#saving_lampsacus}
The people of Lampsacus were pro-Persian, or were suspected of doing so and Alexander was furiously angry, and threatened to do them massive harm. They sent Anaximenes to intercede for them. Alexander knew why he had come, and swore by the gods that he would do the opposite of what he would ask, so Anaximenes said, \'Please do this for me, your majesty: enslave the women and children of Lampsacus, burn their temples, and raze the city to the ground.\' Alexander had no way round this clever trick, and since he was bound by his oath he reluctantly pardoned the people of Lampsacus.
## Statue at Olympia {#statue_at_olympia}
The people of Lampsacus dedicated a statue of him at Olympia, Greece.
## Editions and translations {#editions_and_translations}
- *Art of Rhetoric*
- edited by Immanuel Bekker, Oxford 1837 ([online](https://books.google.com/books?id=gtM9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA169))
- *[Anaximenis ars rhetorica](https://books.google.com/books?id=5ugDAAAAQAAJ)*, L. Spengel (ed.), Leipzig, Vergsbureau, 1847.
- *Rhetores Graeci*, L. Spengel (ed.), Lipsiae, sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1853, [vol. 1 pp. 169-242](https://archive.org/details/rhetoresgraeci00spen).
- edited by Manfred Fuhrmann, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, 1966, 2nd ed. 2000, `{{ISBN|3-598-71983-3}}`{=mediawiki}
- edited by Pierre Chiron, Collection Budé, with French translation, Paris, 2002, `{{ISBN|2-251-00498-X}}`{=mediawiki}
- anonymous translation, London, 1686 ([online](https://books.google.com/books?id=r_6bkR_WpdQC&pg=PA213))
- translated by E.S. Forster, Oxford, 1924 ([online](https://archive.org/details/worksofaristotle11arisuoft), beginning on [p. 231](https://archive.org/stream/worksofaristotle11arisuoft#page/n229/mode/2up))
- Fragments
- Karl Müller, appendix to 1846 Didot edition of Arrian, *Anabasis et Indica* ([online](https://books.google.com/books?id=LeYGAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA33))
- Felix Jacoby, *Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker*, no. 72, with commentary in German
- Ludwig Radermacher, *Artium Scriptores*, Vienna, 1951, pp
| 546 |
Anaximenes of Lampsacus
| 1 |
1,749 |
**Ancus Marcius** (`{{IPA|la-x-classic|ˈaŋkʊs ˈmaːrkiʊs|lang|link=yes}}`{=mediawiki}) was the legendary fourth king of Rome, who traditionally reigned 24 years. Upon the death of the previous king, Tullus Hostilius, the Roman Senate appointed an interrex, who in turn called a session of the assembly of the people who elected the new king. Ancus is said to have ruled by waging war as Romulus did, while also promoting peace and religion as Numa Pompilius did.
Ancus Marcius was believed by many Romans to have been the namesake of the Marcii, a plebeian family. `{{Coin image box 1 double
| header =
| image = Image:L. Marcius Philippus.jpg
| caption_left = '''[[Obverse and reverse|O:]]''' [[diadem]]ed head of Ancus Marcius, [[lituus]] behind
ANCVS
| caption_right = '''[[Obverse and reverse|R:]]''' [[equestrian statue]] on 5 arches of [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]] ([[Aqua Marcia]])
PHILIPPVS
A-Q-V-A-(MAR)
| width = 300
| footer = [[Silver]] [[denarius]] struck by [[Lucius Marcius Philippus (consul 38 BC)|Lucius Marcius Philippus]] in [[Rome]] 56 BC.
| position = right
| margin = 4
}}`{=mediawiki}
## Background
Ancus was the son of Marcius (himself the son of Rome\'s first *pontifex maximus* Numa Marcius) and Pompilia (daughter of Numa Pompilius). Ancus Marcius was thus the grandson of Numa and therefore a Sabine. According to Festus, Marcius was surnamed Ancus because of his crooked arm (*ancus* signifying \"bent\" in Latin).
## First acts as King {#first_acts_as_king}
According to Livy, Ancus\'s first act as king was to order the Pontifex Maximus to copy the text concerning the performance of public ceremonies of religion from the commentaries of Numa Pompilius to be displayed to the public on wooden tablets, so that the rites of religion should no longer be neglected or improperly performed. When Tullus was king, he repealed the Numa-created religious edicts that had been in place before.
| 296 |
Ancus Marcius
| 0 |
1,749 |
## War
According to Livy, the accession of Ancus emboldened the Latin League, who assumed that the new king would follow the pious pursuit of peace adopted by his grandfather, Numa Pompilius. The Latins accordingly made an incursion on Roman lands, and gave a contemptuous reply to a Roman embassy seeking restitution for the damage. Ancus responded by declaring war on the Latins. Livy says that this event was notable as the first time that the Romans declared war by means of the rites of the fetials. Ancus Marcius marched from Rome with a newly levied army and took the Latin town of Politorium (situated near the town of Lanuvium) by storm. Its residents were removed to settle on the Aventine Hill in Rome as new citizens, following the Roman traditions from wars with the Sabines and Albans. When the other Latins subsequently occupied the empty town of Politorium, Ancus took the town again and demolished it. The Latin villages of Tellenae and Ficana were also sacked and demolished.
The war then focused on the Latin town of Medullia. The town had a strong garrison and was well fortified. Several engagements took place outside the town and the Romans were eventually victorious. Ancus returned to Rome with a large amount of loot. More Latins were brought to Rome as citizens and were settled at the foot of the Aventine near the Palatine Hill, by the temple of Murcia.
Ancus Marcius incorporated the Janiculum into the city, fortifying it with a wall and connecting it with the city by a wooden bridge across the Tiber, the Pons Sublicius. To protect the bridge from enemy attacks, Ancus had the end that was facing the Janiculum fortified. Ancus also took over Fidenea to expand Rome\'s influence across the Tiber. On the land side of the city he constructed the Fossa Quiritium, a ditch fortification. He also built Rome\'s first prison, the Mamertine prison.
He then extended the Roman territory, founding the port of Ostia, establishing salt-works around the port, and taking the Silva Maesia, an area of coastal forest north of the Tiber, from the Veientes. He expanded the temple of Jupiter Feretrius to reflect these territorial successes. According to a reconstruction of the Fasti Triumphales, Ancus Marcius celebrated at least one triumph, over the Sabines and Veientes.
## Death and successor {#death_and_successor}
Ancus Marcius is reported to have died of natural causes after a rule of 24 years. He had two sons, one of which would likely take the throne. A member of Ancus\' court, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, ensured that Ancus\' sons would be out of Rome so he could put together an election where he would gain the support of the Roman people.
Ancus Marcius was succeeded by his friend Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, who was ultimately assassinated by the sons of Ancus Marcius. Later, during the Republic and the Empire, the prominent gens Marcia claimed descent from Ancus Marcius
| 488 |
Ancus Marcius
| 1 |
1,752 |
**Andocides** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|ˈ|d|ɒ|s|ɪ|d|iː|z}}`{=mediawiki}; *Ἀνδοκίδης*, *Andokides*; `{{citation needed span |text={{Circa|440|370 BC}} |date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki}) was a logographer (speech writer) in Ancient Greece. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the \"Alexandrian Canon\" compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BC.
## Life
Andocides was the son of Leogoras, and was born in Athens around 440 BC. He belonged to the ancient Eupatrid family of the Kerykes, who traced their lineage up to Odysseus and the god Hermes.
During his youth, Andocides seems to have been employed on various occasions as ambassador to Thessaly, Macedonia, Molossia, Thesprotia, Italy, and Sicily. Although he was frequently attacked for his political opinions, he maintained his ground until, in 415 BC, he became involved in the charge brought against Alcibiades for having profaned the mysteries and mutilated the Herms on the eve of the departure of the Athenian expedition against Sicily. It appeared particularly likely that Andocides was an accomplice in the latter of these crimes, which was believed to be a preliminary step towards overthrowing the democratic constitution, since the Herm standing close to his house in the phyle Aegeis was among the very few which had not been injured.
Andocides was accordingly seized and thrown into prison, but after some time recovered his freedom by a promise that he would become an informer and reveal the names of the real perpetrators of the crime; and on the suggestion of one Charmides or Timaeus, he mentioned four, all of whom were put to death. He is also said to have denounced his own father on the charge of profaning the mysteries, but to have rescued him again in the hour of danger - a charge he strenuously denied. But as Andocides was unable to clear himself from the charge, he was deprived of his rights as a citizen, and left Athens.
Andocides traveled about in various parts of Greece, and was chiefly engaged in commercial enterprise and in forming connections with powerful people. The means he employed to gain the friendship of powerful men were sometimes of the most disreputable kind; among which a service he rendered to a prince in Cyprus is mentioned in particular.
In 411 BC, Andocides returned to Athens on the establishment of the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred, hoping that a certain service he had rendered the Athenian ships at Samos would secure him a welcome reception. But no sooner were the oligarchs informed of the return of Andocides, than their leader Peisander had him seized, and accused him of having supported the party opposed to them at Samos. During his trial, Andocides, who perceived the exasperation prevailing against him, leaped to the altar which stood in the court, and there assumed the attitude of a supplicant. This saved his life, but he was imprisoned. Soon afterwards, however, he was set free, or escaped from prison.
Andocides then went to Cyprus, where for a time he enjoyed the friendship of Evagoras; but, by some circumstance or other, he exasperated his friend, and was consigned to prison. Here again he escaped, and after the restoration of democracy in Athens and the abolition of the Four Hundred, he ventured once more to return to Athens; but as he was still suffering under a sentence of civil disenfranchisement, he endeavored by means of bribes to persuade the prytaneis to allow him to attend the assembly of the people. The latter, however, expelled him from the city. It was on this occasion, in 411 BC, that Andocides delivered the speech still extant \"On his return\", on which he petitioned for permission to reside at Athens, but in vain. In his third exile, Andocides went to reside in Elis, and during the time of his absence from his native city, his house there was occupied by Cleophon, the leading demagogue.
Andocides remained in exile until after the overthrow of the tyranny of the Thirty by Thrasybulus, when the general amnesty then proclaimed made him hope that its benefit would be extended to him also. He himself says that he returned to Athens from Cyprus, where he claimed to have great influence and considerable property. Because of the general amnesty, he was allowed to remain at Athens, enjoyed peace for the next three years, and soon recovered an influential position. According to Lysias, it was scarcely ten days after his return that he brought an accusation against Archippus or Aristippus, which, however, he dropped on receiving a sum of money. During this period Andocides became a member of the boule, in which he appears to have possessed a great influence, as well as in the popular assembly. He was gymnasiarch at the Hephaestaea, was sent as architheorus to the Isthmian Games and Olympic Games, and was even entrusted with the office of keeper of the sacred treasury.
But in 400 BC, Callias, supported by Cephisius, Agyrrhius, Meletus, and Epichares, urged the necessity of preventing Andocides from attending the assembly, as he had never been formally freed from the civil disenfranchisement. Callias II also charged him with violating the laws respecting the temple at Eleusis. The orator pleaded his case in the oration still extant \"on the Mysteries\" (περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων), in which he argued that he had not been involved in the profanation of the mysteries or the mutilation of the herms, that he had not violated the laws of the temple at Eleusis, that anyway he had received his citizenship back as a result of the amnesty, and that Callias was really motivated by a private dispute with Andocides over inheritance. He was acquitted. After this, he again enjoyed peace until 394 BC, when he was sent as ambassador to Sparta regarding the peace to be concluded in consequence of Conon\'s victory off Cnidus. On his return, he was accused of illegal conduct during his embassy. The speech \"On the peace with the Lacedaemonians\" (περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης), which is still extant, refers to this affair. It was delivered in 393 BC (though some scholars place it in 391 BC). Andocides was found guilty, and sent into exile for the fourth time. He never returned afterwards, and seems to have died soon after this blow.
Andocides appears to have fathered no children, since he is described at the age of 70 as being childless, although the scholiast on Aristophanes mentions Antiphon as a son of Andocides. The large fortune which he had inherited from his father, or acquired in his commercial undertakings, was greatly diminished in the latter years of his life.
## Oratory
As an orator, Andocides does not appear to have been held in very high esteem by the ancients, as he is seldom mentioned, though Valerius Theon is said to have written a commentary on his orations. We do not hear of his having been trained in any of the sophistical schools of the time, and he had probably developed his talents in the practical school of the popular assembly. Hence his orations have no mannerism in them, and are really, as Plutarch says, simple and free from all rhetorical pomp and ornament.
Sometimes, however, his style is diffuse, and becomes tedious and obscure. The best among his orations is that \"on the Mysteries\"; but, for the history of the time, all are of the highest importance.
Besides the three orations already mentioned, which are undoubtedly genuine, there is a fourth against Alcibiades (κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου), said to have been delivered by Andocides during the ostracism of 415 BC; but it is probably spurious, though it appears to contain genuine historical matter. Some scholars ascribed it to Phaeax, who took part in the ostracism, according to Plutarch. But it is more likely that it is a rhetorical exercise from the early fourth century BC, since formal speeches were not delivered during ostracisms and the accusation or defence of Alcibiades was a standing rhetorical theme. Besides these four orations we possess only a few fragments and some very vague allusions to other orations.
| 1,337 |
Andocides
| 0 |
1,752 |
## List of extant speeches {#list_of_extant_speeches}
### [On the Mysteries](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+1+1) (*Περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων* \"*De Mysteriis*\"). {#on_the_mysteries_de_mysteriis.}
Andocides made the speech \"On the Mysteries\" as a defense against the accusations made against him by Athens for attending the Eleusinian Mysteries without permission, as he was prohibited under Isotimides\' order. The case\'s prosecutors had insisted that Andocides be put to death. His attendance at the Eleusinian Mysteries in Eleusis around 400 BCE was the main accusation made against him. Additionally, he was charged with unlawfully placing an olive branch on the altar of the Eleusinium at Athens during the Mysteries.
The speech can be split into two parts. In the first, Andocides asserted that the decree of Isotimides had no power to prevent him from attending the Eleusinian Mysteries because he was innocent of impiety and had not confessed to it. He would go on to declare that because of alterations made to the law in 403 BCE, the decree altogether was no longer legitimate.
In the second part of the speech, he would move on to claim that his prosecutors, namely Cephisius, Meletus, Epichares and Agyrrhius, were not legitimate by making allegations against them. Andocides asserted that Cephisius, Meletus, and Epichares had also committed crimes prior to the legal revisions, exposing their hypocrisy in bringing charges against him since they would also be at risk of being prosecuted. Andocides asserts that Agyrrhius is ineligible to prosecute them for their private conflicts.
This speech was successful in persuading the jury, as Andocides was sentenced to be innocent. Gagarin and MacDowell commented on the oration, saying that while the speech itself is rather rough on its wording, it is a genuine speech of Andocides fighting for his life and was "sufficiently clear and logical".
### [On His Return](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+2+1) (*Περὶ τῆς ἑαυτοῦ καθόδου* \"*De Reditu*\"). {#on_his_return_de_reditu.}
"On His Return" was a speech made by Andocides in an attempt to be brought back to Athen after being exiled from the city-state in 415 BCE for impious acts. Despite commonly being considered as the second work in Andocides' orations, "On His Return" precedes \"On the Mysteries" in date. Andocides tries to return to the city-state in 411 BCE. To ensure his return would be welcomed, he had obtained some Macedonian timber and sold them to the Athenian fleet stationed at Samos. However, in an interesting turn of events, Andocides' goodwill would turn against him. The Four Hundred, an oligarchy, had just come into reign from a coup in 411 BCE, they were faced with objections from the sailors at Samos, who were mostly democratic. As a result, Andocides was imprisoned by Perisander, the leader of the Four Hundred.
"On His Return" was made after the downfall of the Four Hundred, with Andocides appealing to seek forgiveness and be reaccepted into Athenian society. Experts have distinctively noted that this oration has a tone different from "On The Mysteries", in which Andocides was more prone to admit his faults and put himself at a lower light. Saying that "I stood disgraced in the eyes of the gods" and addressing his crime as "such a piece of madness". However, his efforts were to no avail, as he only was readmitted into the Athenian society upon "On The Mysteries".
| 539 |
Andocides
| 1 |
1,752 |
## List of extant speeches {#list_of_extant_speeches}
### [On the Peace with Sparta](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+3+1) (*Περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης* \"*De Pace*\"). {#on_the_peace_with_sparta_de_pace.}
"On the Peace with Sparta" was given for advocating the acceptance of the terms of peace offered by Sparta during the Corinthian War between Sparta and a coalition consisting of the city-states Athens, Boeotia, Corinth and Argos. Andocides was selected as one of the four delegates that represented Athens in the negotiation of peace between them and Sparta. The delegation were given the authority to conclude the treaty in Sparta, Considering that Andocides was just reaccepted into Athens by "On The Mysteries" in 403 BCE. The delegation shows that Andocides had gained considerable popularity among the Athenians within eight years upon his return. Still, with the authority given, the team of delegates decided to bring the terms back to Athens for approval. The speech gives the historical context behind the offer of truce, and gives a list of arguments for the acceptance of Sparta\'s terms for peace. The terms that were given were closely related to the Spartan victory in the Peloponnesian War, after which rather unfair terms had been imposed on the Athenians by Sparta for peace. They include:
1. Athens would destroy Athenian town walls
2. Athens would give up the Delian League
3. Athens would shrink the Athenian navy except a mere twelve ships
4. Athens would Install the Thirty, an oppressive oligarchic regime
The peace terms offered by Sparta were mostly responses to the terms listed above, they include:
1. Athens would be allowed to rebuild their town walls
2. Athens would be able to expand their navy and control three islands at the north of the Aegean sea
3. Greeks cities would be independent, except those in Asia, which would be under Persian control.
In "On the Peace with Sparta", Andocides argues that such terms were satisfactory for the Athenian side, claiming that "it is better to make peace on fair terms than to continue fighting". However, the speech would fail to convince the Athenians, partly because of Andocides' aristocratic origins and oligarchic political stance. Andocides would flee from Athens and be exiled again for allegedly accepting bribes and making false reports. There is no information on his life after the exile.
Still, Gagarin and MacDowell commented that Andocides speaks like an professional orator in this speech, this seems to imply that he has received extensive training and gained considerable experience on public speaking.
### [Against Alcibiades](https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Andoc.+4+1) (*Κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου* \"*Contra Alcibiadem*\")*.* {#against_alcibiades_contra_alcibiadem.}
This oration criticises Alcibiades for an ostracism which he and the speaker were in danger of falling victim to. An ostracism was a method of banishing a citizen for a decade. The oration claims that Alcibiades bought a female slave from one of the captives after the fall of Melos.
The speaker bashes Alcibiades for his questionable morals and acts, as shown in he recounting Alcibiades' actions during the Olympic games in 416 BCE, " Alcibiades will not endure it (defeat in Olympia) even at the hands of his fellow-citizens" and that "he does not treat his own fellow Athenians as his equals, but robs them, strikes them, throws them into prison, and extorts money from them".
However, this speech fails to meet its goal of ostracizing Alcibiades, as followers of him and Nicas rallied support for the two and instead urged people to vote against Hyperbolus, a less politically significant figure. This strategy is successful as Hyperbolus was banished instead of the two. This would mark the fall of the ostracism system, as it was controversial among the public that it could be manipulated in such a way, the system would be abandoned soon after this case.
Although attributed to Andocides, it has been widely agreed upon that Andocides was not the one who made this speech. For the reason that the author of the speech lacks the correct understanding of the procedures of an ostracism and Athenian politics in general, the style of the speech was also significantly different than that of Andocides. One popular theory of the authorship of the speech was that it was written by Phaeax, another orator in Athens at the time
| 695 |
Andocides
| 2 |
1,756 |
***An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding*** is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in English in 1748 under the title *Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding* until a 1757 edition came up with the now-familiar name. It was a revision of an earlier effort, Hume\'s *A Treatise of Human Nature*, published anonymously in London in 1739--40. Hume was disappointed with the reception of the *Treatise*, which \"fell dead-born from the press,\" as he put it, and so tried again to disseminate his more developed ideas to the public by writing a shorter and more polemical work.
The end product of his labours was the *Enquiry*. The *Enquiry* dispensed with much of the material from the *Treatise*, in favor of clarifying and emphasizing its most important aspects. For example, Hume\'s views on personal identity do not appear. However, more vital propositions, such as Hume\'s argument for the role of habit in a theory of knowledge, are retained.
This book has proven highly influential, both in the years that would immediately follow and today. Immanuel Kant points to it as the book which woke him from his self-described \"dogmatic slumber.\" The *Enquiry* is widely regarded as a classic in modern philosophical literature.
## Content
The argument of the *Enquiry* proceeds by a series of incremental steps, separated into chapters which logically succeed one another. After expounding his epistemology, Hume explains how to apply his principles to specific topics.
### 1. Of the different species of philosophy {#of_the_different_species_of_philosophy}
In the first section of the Enquiry, Hume provides a rough introduction to philosophy as a whole. For Hume, philosophy can be split into two general parts: natural philosophy and the philosophy of human nature (or, as he calls it, \"moral philosophy\"). The latter investigates both actions and thoughts. He emphasizes in this section, by way of warning, that philosophers with nuanced thoughts will likely be cast aside in favor of those whose conclusions more intuitively match popular opinion. However, he insists, precision helps art and craft of all kinds, including the craft of philosophy.
### 2. Of the origin of ideas {#of_the_origin_of_ideas}
Next, Hume discusses the distinction between impressions and ideas. By \"impressions\", he means sensations, while by \"ideas\", he means memories and imaginings. According to Hume, the difference between the two is that ideas are less *vivacious* than impressions. For example, the idea of the taste of an orange is far inferior to the impression (or sensation) of actually eating one. Writing within the tradition of empiricism, he argues that impressions are the source of all ideas.
Hume accepts that ideas may be either the product of mere sensation or of the imagination working in conjunction with sensation. According to Hume, the creative faculty makes use of (at least) four mental operations that produce imaginings out of sense-impressions. These operations are *compounding* (or the addition of one idea onto another, such as a horn on a horse to create a unicorn); *transposing* (or the substitution of one part of a thing with the part from another, such as with the body of a man upon a horse to make a centaur); *augmenting* (as with the case of a giant, whose size has been augmented); and *diminishing* (as with Lilliputians, whose size has been diminished). (Hume 1974:317) In a later chapter, he also mentions the operations of *mixing*, *separating*, and *dividing*. (Hume 1974:340)
However, Hume admits that there is one objection to his account: the problem of *\"The Missing Shade of Blue\"*. In this thought-experiment, he asks us to imagine a man who has experienced every shade of blue except for one (see Fig. 1). He predicts that this man will be able to divine the color of this particular shade of blue, despite the fact that he has never experienced it. This seems to pose a serious problem for the empirical account, though Hume brushes it aside as an exceptional case by stating that one may experience a novel idea that itself is derived from combinations of previous impressions. (Hume 1974:319)
### 3. Of the association of ideas {#of_the_association_of_ideas}
In this chapter, Hume discusses how thoughts tend to come in sequences, as in trains of thought. He explains that there are at least three kinds of associations between ideas: *resemblance*, *contiguity* in space-time, and *cause-and-effect*. He argues that there must be some *universal principle* that must account for the various sorts of connections that exist between ideas. However, he does not immediately show what this principle might be. (Hume 1974:320-321)
### 4. Sceptical doubts concerning the operations of the understanding (in two parts) {#sceptical_doubts_concerning_the_operations_of_the_understanding_in_two_parts}
In the first part, Hume discusses how the objects of inquiry are either \"relations of ideas\" or \"matters of fact\", which is roughly the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions. The former, he tells the reader, are proved by demonstration, while the latter are given through experience. (Hume 1974:322) In explaining how matters of fact are entirely a product of experience, he dismisses the notion that they may be arrived at through *a priori* reasoning. For Hume, every effect only follows its cause arbitrarily---they are entirely distinct from one another. (Hume 1974:324)
In part two, Hume inquires into how anyone can justifiably believe that experience yields any conclusions about the world:
:
: \"When it is asked, *What is the nature of all our reasonings concerning matter of fact?* the proper answer seems to be, that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. When again it is asked, *What is the foundation of all our reasonings and conclusions concerning that relation?* it may be replied in one word, *experience*. But if we still carry on our sifting humor, and ask, *What is the foundation of all conclusions from experience?* this implies a new question, which may be of more difficult solution and explication.\" (Hume 1974:328)
He shows how a satisfying argument for the validity of experience can be based neither on demonstration (since \"it implies no contradiction that the course of nature may change\") nor experience (since that would be a circular argument). (Hume 1974:330-332) Here he is describing what would become known as the problem of induction.
| 1,024 |
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
| 0 |
1,756 |
## Content
### 5. Sceptical solution of these doubts (in two parts) {#sceptical_solution_of_these_doubts_in_two_parts}
According to Hume, we assume that experience tells us something about the world because of *habit or custom*, which human nature forces us to take seriously. This is also, presumably, the \"principle\" that organizes the connections between ideas. Indeed, one of the many famous passages of the *Enquiry* is on the topic of the incorrigibility of human custom. In Section XII, *Of the academical or sceptical philosophy*, Hume will argue,
:
: *\"The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of skepticism is action, and employment, and the occupations of common life. These principles may flourish and triumph in the schools; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to refute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish like smoke, and leave the most determined skeptic in the same condition as other mortals.\"* (Hume 1974:425)
In the second part, he provides an account of beliefs. He explains that the difference between belief and fiction is that the former produces a certain feeling of confidence which the latter doesn\'t. (Hume 1974:340)
### 6. Of probability {#of_probability}
This short chapter begins with the notions of probability and chance. For him, \"probability\" means a *higher chance* of occurring, and brings about a higher degree of subjective expectation in the viewer. By \"chance\", he means all those particular comprehensible events which the viewer considers possible in accord with the viewer\'s experience. However, further experience takes these equal chances, and forces the imagination to observe that certain chances arise more frequently than others. These gentle forces upon the imagination cause the viewer to have strong beliefs in outcomes. This effect may be understood as another case of *custom or habit* taking past experience and using it to predict the future. (Hume 1974:346-348)
### 7. Of the idea of necessary connection (in two parts) {#of_the_idea_of_necessary_connection_in_two_parts}
By \"necessary connection\", Hume means the power or force which necessarily ties one idea to another. He rejects the notion that any sensible qualities are necessarily conjoined, since that would mean we could know something prior to experience. Unlike his predecessors, Berkeley and Locke, Hume rejects the idea that volitions or impulses of the will may be inferred to necessarily connect to the actions they produce by way of some sense of the power of the will. He reasons that, 1. if we knew the nature of this power, then the mind-body divide would seem totally unmysterious to us; 2. if we had immediate knowledge of this mysterious power, then we would be able to intuitively explain why it is that we can control some parts of our bodies (e.g., our hands or tongues), and not others (e.g., the liver or heart); 3. we have no immediate knowledge of the powers which allow an impulse of volition to create an action (e.g., of the \"muscles, and nerves, and animal spirits\" which are the immediate cause of an action). (Hume 1974:353-354) He produces like arguments against the notion that we have knowledge of these powers as they affect the mind alone. (Hume 1974:355-356) He also argues in brief against the idea that causes are mere occasions of the will of some god(s), a view associated with the philosopher Nicolas Malebranche. (Hume 1974:356-359)
Having dispensed with these alternative explanations, he identifies the source of our knowledge of necessary connections as arising out of *observation of constant conjunction of certain impressions across many instances*. In this way, people know of necessity through rigorous custom or habit, and not from any immediate knowledge of the powers of the will. (Hume 1974:361)
### 8. Of liberty and necessity (in two parts) {#of_liberty_and_necessity_in_two_parts}
Here Hume tackles the problem of how liberty may be reconciled with metaphysical necessity (otherwise known as a compatibilist formulation of free will). Hume believes that all disputes on the subject have been merely verbal arguments---that is to say, arguments which are based on a lack of prior agreement on definitions. He first shows that it is clear that most events are deterministic, but human actions are more controversial. However, he thinks that these too occur out of necessity since an outside observer can see the same regularity that he would in a purely physical system. To show the compatibility of necessity and liberty, Hume defines liberty as the ability to act on the basis of one\'s will e.g. the capacity to will one\'s actions but not to will one\'s will. He then shows (quite briefly) how determinism and free will are compatible notions, and have no bad consequences on ethics or moral life.
### 9. Of the reason of animals {#of_the_reason_of_animals}
Hume insists that the conclusions of the Enquiry will be very powerful if they can be shown to apply to animals and not just humans. He believed that animals were able to infer the relation between cause and effect in the same way that humans do: through learned expectations. (Hume 1974:384) He also notes that this \"inferential\" ability that animals have is not through reason, but custom alone. Hume concludes that there is an innate faculty of instincts which both beasts and humans share, namely, the ability to reason experimentally (through custom). Nevertheless, he admits, humans and animals differ in mental faculties in a number of ways, including: differences in memory and attention, inferential abilities, ability to make deductions in a long chain, ability to grasp ideas more or less clearly, the human capacity to worry about conflating unrelated circumstances, a sagely prudence which arrests generalizations, a capacity for a greater inner library of analogies to reason with, an ability to detach oneself and scrap one\'s own biases, and an ability to converse through language (and thus gain from the experience of others\' testimonies). (Hume 1974:385, footnote 17.)
| 990 |
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
| 1 |
1,756 |
## Content
### 10. Of miracles (in two parts) {#of_miracles_in_two_parts}
The next topic which Hume strives to give treatment is that of the reliability of human testimony, and of the role that testimony plays a part in epistemology. This was not an idle concern for Hume. Depending on its outcome, the entire treatment would give the epistemologist a degree of certitude in the treatment of miracles.
True to his empirical thesis, Hume tells the reader that, though testimony does have some force, it is never quite as powerful as the direct evidence of the senses. That said, he provides some reasons why we may have a basis for trust in the testimony of persons: because a) human memory can be relatively tenacious; and b) because people are inclined to tell the truth, and ashamed of telling falsities. Needless to say, these reasons are only to be trusted to the extent that they conform to experience. (Hume 1974:389)
And there are a number of reasons to be skeptical of human testimony, also based on experience. If a) testimonies conflict one another, b) there are a small number of witnesses, c) the speaker has no integrity, d) the speaker is overly hesitant or bold, or e) the speaker is known to have motives for lying, then the epistemologist has reason to be skeptical of the speaker\'s claims. (Hume 1974:390)
There is one final criterion that Hume thinks gives us warrant to doubt any given testimony, and that is f) if the propositions being communicated are miraculous. Hume understands a miracle to be any event which contradicts the laws of nature. He argues that the laws of nature have an overwhelming body of evidence behind them, and are so well demonstrated to everyone\'s experience, that any deviation from those laws necessarily flies in the face of all evidence. (Hume 1974:391-392)
Moreover, he stresses that talk of the miraculous has no surface validity, for four reasons. First, he explains that in all of history there has never been a miracle which was attested to by a wide body of disinterested experts. Second, he notes that human beings delight in a sense of wonder, and this provides a villain with an opportunity to manipulate others. Third, he thinks that those who hold onto the miraculous have tended towards barbarism. Finally, since testimonies tend to conflict with one another when it comes to the miraculous---that is, one man\'s religious miracle may be contradicted by another man\'s miracle---any testimony relating to the fantastic is self-denunciating. (Hume 1974:393-398)
Still, Hume takes care to warn that historians are generally to be trusted with confidence, so long as their reports on facts are extensive and uniform. However, he seems to suggest that historians are as fallible at interpreting the facts as the rest of humanity. Thus, if every historian were to claim that there was a solar eclipse in the year 1600, then though we might at first naively regard that as in violation of natural laws, we\'d come to accept it as a fact. But if every historian were to assert that Queen Elizabeth was observed walking around happy and healthy after her funeral, and then interpreted that to mean that they had risen from the dead, then we\'d have reason to appeal to natural laws in order to dispute their interpretation. (Hume 1974:400-402)
### 11. Of a particular providence and of a future state {#of_a_particular_providence_and_of_a_future_state}
Hume continues his application of epistemology to theology by an extended discussion on heaven and hell. The brunt of this chapter allegedly narrates the opinions, not of Hume, but of one of Hume\'s anonymous friends, who again presents them in an imagined speech by the philosopher Epicurus. His friend argues that, though it is possible to trace a cause from an effect, it is not possible to infer unseen effects from a cause thus traced. The friend insists, then, that even though we might postulate that there is a first cause behind all things---God---we can\'t infer anything about the afterlife, because we don\'t know anything of the afterlife from experience, and we can\'t infer it from the existence of God. (Hume 1974:408)
Hume offers his friend an objection: if we see an unfinished building, then can\'t we infer that it has been created by humans with certain intentions, and that it will be finished in the future? His friend concurs, but indicates that there is a relevant disanalogy that we can\'t pretend to know the contents of the mind of God, while we can know the designs of other humans. Hume seems essentially persuaded by his friend\'s reasoning. (Hume 1974:412-414)
| 767 |
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
| 2 |
1,756 |
## Content
### 12. Of the academical or skeptical philosophy (in three parts) {#of_the_academical_or_skeptical_philosophy_in_three_parts}
The first section of the last chapter is well organized as an outline of various skeptical arguments. The treatment includes the arguments of atheism, Cartesian skepticism, \"light\" skepticism, and rationalist critiques of empiricism. Hume shows that even light skepticism leads to crushing doubts about the world which - while they ultimately are philosophically justifiable - may only be combated through the non-philosophical adherence to custom or habit. He ends the section with his own reservations towards Cartesian and Lockean epistemologies.
In the second section he returns to the topic of hard skepticism by sharply denouncing it.
:
: \"For here is the chief and most confounding objection to *excessive* skepticism, that no durable good can ever result from it; while it remains in its full force and vigor. We need only ask such a skeptic, *What his meaning is? And what he proposes by all these curious researches?* He is immediately at a loss, and knows not what to answer\... a Pyrrhonian cannot expect, that his philosophy will have any constant influence on the mind: or if it had, that its influence would be beneficial to society. On the contrary, he must acknowledge, if he will acknowledge anything, that all human life must perish, were his principles universally and steadily to prevail.\" (Hume 1974:426)
He concludes the volume by setting out the limits of knowledge once and for all. \"*When we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we make? If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask,*Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?*No.*Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?*No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.*\"
## Critiques and rejoinders {#critiques_and_rejoinders}
The criteria Hume lists in his examination of the validity of human testimony are roughly upheld in modern social psychology, under the rubric of the communication-persuasion paradigm. Supporting literature includes: the work of social impact theory, which discusses persuasion in part through the number of persons engaging in influence; as well as studies made on the relative influence of communicator credibility in different kinds of persuasion; and examinations of the trustworthiness of the speaker.
The \"custom\" view of learning can in many ways be likened to associationist psychology. This point of view has been subject to severe criticism in the research of the 20th century. Still, testing on the subject has been somewhat divided. Testing on certain animals like cats have concluded that they do not possess any faculty which allow their minds to grasp an insight into cause and effect. However, it has been shown that some animals, like chimpanzees, were able to generate creative plans of action to achieve their goals, and thus would seem to have a causal insight which transcends mere custom.
| 491 |
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
| 3 |
1,756 |
## Legacy
Albert Einstein was a great admirer of Hume and remarked in a letter to Moritz Schlick that he had read Hume\'s book and the works of Ernst Mach \"with eagerness and admiration shortly before finding relativity theory\" and that \"very possibly, I wouldn\'t have come to the solution without those philosophical studies\"
| 54 |
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
| 4 |
1,758 |
**André de Longjumeau** (also known as **Andrew of Longjumeau** in English) was a French diplomat and Dominican missionary and one of the most active Occidental diplomats in the East in the 13th century. He led two embassies to the Mongols: the first carried letters from Pope Innocent IV and the second bore gifts and letters from Louis IX of France to Güyük Khan. Well acquainted with the Middle East, he spoke Arabic and \"Chaldean\" (thought to be either Syriac or Persian).
## Mission for the holy Crown of Thorns {#mission_for_the_holy_crown_of_thorns}
André\'s first mission to the East was when he was asked by the French king Louis IX to go to Constantinople to obtain the crown of thorns that had been sold to him by the Latin emperor Baldwin II in 1238, who was anxious to obtain support for his empire. André was accompanied on this mission by a Dominican friar, brother Jacques.
## Papal mission to the Mongols (1245--1247) {#papal_mission_to_the_mongols_12451247}
André of Longjumeau led one of four missions dispatched to the Mongols by Pope Innocent IV. He left Lyon in the spring of 1245 for the Levant. He visited Muslim principalities in Syria and representatives of the Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church in Seljuk Persia, finally delivering the papal correspondence to a Mongol general near Tabriz. In Tabriz, André de Longjumeau met with a monk from the Far East named Simeon Rabban Ata, who had been put in charge by the Khan of protecting Christians in the Middle East.
## Second mission to the Mongols (1249--1251) {#second_mission_to_the_mongols_12491251}
At the Mongol camp near Kars, André had met a certain David, who in December 1248 appeared at the court of King Louis IX of France, who was preparing his armies in the allied Kingdom of Cyprus. André, who was now with the French King, interpreted David\'s words as a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general Eljigidei, and a proposal of a joint attack on Ayyubid Syria. In reply to this, the French sovereign dispatched André as his ambassador to Güyük Khan. Longjumeau went with his brother Jacques (also a Dominican) and several others -- John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert \"Le Sommelier\", Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy.
The party set out on 16 February 1249, with letters from King Louis and the papal legate, and lavish presents, including a chapel tent lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and thence traveled for a year to the Khan\'s court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and certainly through Taraz, north-east of Tashkent.
Upon arrival at the supreme Mongol court -- either that on the Emil River (near Lake Alakol and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the Altai Mountains), or more probably at or near Karakorum itself, southwest of Lake Baikal -- André found Güyük Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu Khan\'s agents. The regent Oghul Qaimish, Güyük Khan\'s widow (the \"Camus\" of William of Rubruck), seems to have received him with presents and a dismissive letter for Louis IX. It is certain that before the friar had left \"Tartary\", Möngke, Güyük\'s successor, had been elected khagan.
André\'s report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1251 at Caesarea Palaestina, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols\' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader Genghis Khan with the mythical Prester John, and in the supposed location of the Mongols\' homeland, close to the prison of Gog and Magog. On the other hand, the envoy\'s account of Mongol customs is fairly accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host) are likely factual.
Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations that other historians record in detail. He found Christian prisoners from Germany in the heart of \"Tartary\" at Taraz and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Genghis Khan, gifts which were treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behavior, and the language of the letter with which André reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says Jean de Joinville, \"se repenti fort\" (\"felt very sorry\").
## Death
The date and location of André\'s death is unknown.
We only know of André through references in other writers: see especially William of Rubruck\'s in *Recueil de voyages*, iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254--235; William of Nangis in *Recueil des historiens des Gaules*, xx. 359--367; Rémusat, *Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens... avec les... Mongols* (1822, etc.), p. 52
| 844 |
André de Longjumeau
| 0 |
1,759 |
**Andriscus** (*Ἀνδρίσκος*, *Andrískos*; `{{fl.}}`{=mediawiki} 154/153 BC -- 146 BC), also often referenced as **Pseudo-Philip**, was a Greek pretender who became the last independent king of Macedon in 149 BC as **Philip VI** (*Φίλιππος*, *Philipos*), based on his claim of being Philip, a now-obscure son of the last legitimate Macedonian king, Perseus. His reign lasted just one year and was toppled by the Roman Republic during the Fourth Macedonian War.
Ancient sources generally agree that he was originally a fuller from Adramyttium in Aeolis in western Anatolia. Around 153 BC, his ancestry was supposedly revealed to him, upon which he travelled to the court of his claimed uncle, the Seleucid monarch Demetrius I Soter, to request assistance in claiming his throne. Demetrius refused and had him sent to Rome, where he was judged harmless and exiled to a city in Italy; he managed to escape, and after gathering support, primarily from Thrace, he launched an invasion of Macedon, defeating Rome\'s clients and establishing his rule as king. The Romans naturally reacted militarily, triggering war; after some initial successes, Andriscus was defeated and captured by the praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, who subdued Macedon once again.
He was imprisoned for two years before being paraded in Metellus\' triumph in 146 BC, after which he was executed. In the aftermath of his revolt, the Romans established the Roman province of Macedonia, ending Macedonian independence and establishing a permanent presence in the region.
## Origins and early life {#origins_and_early_life}
Details of his origins are vague and sometimes conflicting, though it is generally believed that he was a fuller from Adramyttium in Aeolis in western Anatolia. His exact date of birth is unknown, though according to his own story, he was \"of maturity\" when he made his claims of royalty in 154 BC, and had been raised by a Cretan in Adramyttium.
By his own claims, he was educated at Adramyttium until adolescence, until the Cretan died, after which he was raised with his foster mother. Upon reaching maturity, his mother (or foster mother, according to his claim) gave him a sealed parchment that was supposedly written by Perseus himself, along with the knowledge of the location of two hidden treasures, at Amphipolis and Thessalonica; he would later use these to advance his claims. Ancient sources are unanimous in calling him an impostor and dismiss the story as false; Niese suggests that there is a possibility of his claims being true, but generally agrees that he was a pretender; his main advantage in his claims was his close resemblance to Perseus.
Around 154/153 BC, he left Pergamon for Syria, where he declared his claim to be the illegitimate son of Perseus by a concubine. According to his own account, it was due to his mother (or foster mother) urging him to leave Pergamon to avoid the wrath of the pro-Roman Eumenes II.
| 477 |
Andriscus
| 0 |
1,759 |
## Claiming the throne {#claiming_the_throne}
### In Syria {#in_syria}
He first staked his claim in Syria. Livy and Cassius Dio write that he simply went from Pergamon to Syria and directly staked his claim before the Seleucid monarch, Demetrius I Soter. Diodorus Siculus offers a different account. According to him, Andriscus was already a mercenary in Demetrius\' army. Due to his resemblance to the former Macedonian king, his comrades started jokingly calling him \"son of Perseus\"; these jokes soon began becoming serious suspicions, and at one point, Andriscus himself decided to seize the opportunity and claimed that he was indeed the son of Perseus. Niese attempts to reconcile both accounts, suggesting that he might have travelled to Syria and then enlisted as a mercenary before staking his claim.
He appealed to the king to help him win back his \"ancestral\" throne, and found great popular support among the Seleucid populace, to the extent that there were riots in the capital, Antioch. Large segments of the Seleucid population were of Macedonian descent, nurturing strong anti-Roman sentiment since the Roman conquest of Macedon in the Third Macedonian War; they were eager to help the claimant.`{{refn|group=Note|Inviting Greek and Macedonian settlers to the Seleucid realm, and promoting the Hellenization of the realm, was a common policy of the Seleucids; this was the reason for large populations of Macedonian and Greek descent.<ref name="Steven C. Hause, William S. Maltby 2004 76">{{Cite book |last1=Steven C. Hause |url=https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus |title=Western civilization: a history of European society |last2=William S. Maltby |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-534-62164-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000haus/page/76 76] |quote=The Greco-Macedonian Elite. The Seleucids respected the cultural and religious sensibilities of their subjects but preferred to rely on Greek or Macedonian soldiers and administrators for the day-to-day business of governing. The Greek population of the cities, reinforced until the second century BC by immigration from Greece, formed a dominant, although not especially cohesive, elite. |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Victor, Royce M. 2010 55">{{Cite book |last=Victor, Royce M. |title=Colonial education and class formation in early Judaism: a postcolonial reading |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-567-24719-3 |page=55 |quote=Like other Hellenistic kings, the Seleucids ruled with the help of their "friends" and a Greco-Macedonian elite class separate from the native populations whom they governed.}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} They proceeded to such an extent that there were even calls for deposing the king if he did not help the pretender. Unmoved, or perhaps frightened, Demetrius had Andriscus arrested and sent to Rome.
### In Rome {#in_rome}
In Rome, he was brought before the Senate, where Dio writes that he stood \"in general contempt\" due to what was perceived to be his ordinary nature and transparently false claim. The Romans believed his claim to be fake, because the real Philip had died at Alba Fucens two years after his father Perseus. Considering him harmless, they simply exiled him to an Italian city, but he managed to escape; fleeing Italy, he went to the Greek world, to the city of Miletus.
### Gaining support {#gaining_support}
In Miletus, he tried to advance his claims further, attracting significant attention and sympathy. When the leaders of Miletus learned about this, they arrested him and sought advice from visiting Roman envoys on what to do with him; the envoys were contemptuous of the pretender and told the Miletans he was safe to release. He continued his travels through Ionia, meeting former acquaintances of Perseus and gaining an audience with Kallipa, a former concubine of Perseus who was now married to Athenaios, brother of the Pergamene king Attalus II Philadelphus. Being a Macedonian by birth, and due to her former connections to the Antigonids, she accepted his claim and agreed to help him, giving him money and slaves, and probably recommending that he travel to Thrace, where he would find a following.
He was also received favourably in Byzantium. He finally arrived in Thrace, where he met Teres III, who had married the granddaughter of Perseus and was the son of Cotys IV, who had once been an ally of Perseus. Teres and the other Thracian chieftains, especially a certain Barsabas, received him enthusiastically; he held a coronation ceremony at Teres\' court, was given a few hundred Thracian troops, and set off on his campaign.
| 695 |
Andriscus
| 1 |
1,759 |
## Conquest of Macedon {#conquest_of_macedon}
His first attempt to invade was unsuccessful, and he initially did not inspire much enthusiasm among the Macedonians; this made the Romans complacent about the pretender. However, he soon managed to encounter a force of Rome\'s Macedonian client republics, defeating them in Odomantice; he then invaded Macedon proper, defeating Rome\'s clients on the banks of the Strymon river. Amidst popular acclaim, he crowned himself king at the old Macedonian capital of Pella in 150/149 BC.
### Popular support {#popular_support}
Although the Macedonians\' initial attitude had been lukewarm, his successes won him popularity and widespread support in Macedon. Anti-Roman sentiment was common in Macedon; the populace was obliging in overthrowing the old regime. Support for Andriscus was not uniform --- there was significantly more hesitation among the gentry and upper classes, and somewhat more enthusiasm among the lower classes --- but the popular mood was largely in his favour. His claims were bolstered by his correct prediction of the locations of two treasures, which he claimed were specified in the \"sealed writing\" that had been handed to his caretakers by Perseus, and had later been given to him. Even if there were apprehensions about the veracity of his claim, Niese notes that \"one liked to believe what one wished; the re-establishment of Macedonia enabled liberation from the burden of Roman rule. The longer these burdens had been borne, the happier they \[the Macedonians\] were at the prospect of Macedonia under a king restored from the old lineage.\"
However, it has also been suggested that the extent of his support may not have been as widespread as often believed, and that a significant amount of the Macedonian populace remained pro-republican and pro-Roman. The relative lack of reprisals towards Macedon after his defeat, as compared to the destructions of Corinth and Carthage in the same period, has been suggested as evidence for this theory.
| 316 |
Andriscus
| 2 |
1,759 |
## Reign
### Military campaigns {#military_campaigns}
Andriscus\' reign was defined to a significant degree by his military campaigns, due to his being in a constant state of war with Rome. After his conquest of the Kingdom, he enlarged the army and began campaigns to conquer Thessaly, a key part of the realm of the old Antigonids. Initial resistance to him were from *ad hoc* forces of Roman allies in Greece, a few Roman units and legates in the region and some resistance from the remnants of Rome\'s client republics in Macedon, some elements of which seem to have survived for some time into his reign. Soon, however, the Romans sent a legion under the praetor Publius Juventius Thalna to defeat the pretender.
Thalna, however, appears to have underestimated Andriscus\' strength, not taking into account the fact that the king\'s army had grown dramatically since his enthronement. Andriscus attacked and fought him at an unspecified location in Thessaly (Dio gives it as \"near the borders of Macedon\"); details of the engagement are scarce, but Thalna was killed and his forces almost annihilated. It was the worst defeat Rome would suffer at the hands of the Macedonians; Florus remarks on the irony of how \"they that were invincible against real kings, were defeated by this imaginary and pretended king\". The victory greatly increased the king\'s prestige; he obtained an alliance with Carthage, and his domestic popularity was increased dramatically, allowing him to stamp out republican resistance and conquer Thessaly.
### Foreign policy {#foreign_policy}
At first, Andriscus attempted to negotiate his position with Rome, but when it became clear that they would not recognize his throne, he embarked on a strongly anti-Roman policy, He continued to cultivate his relations with his Thracian allies, to whom he owed his throne; they would continue to provide significant forces for him during his reign.
Foreign interest in relations with him increased dramatically after his victory over Thalna; as mentioned before, Carthage, which was under attack from Rome in the Third Punic War, allied itself to him and promised him money and ships, though these could not be sent before his ultimate defeat. Significant sympathy, possibly cultivated to a degree by him, arose in Greece; however, the Achaean League remained pro-Roman and continued to resist and fight him. King Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon remained staunchly pro-Roman; the Pergamenes were terrified of the prospect of a revived and strong Macedonia on their doorstep.
### Domestic policy {#domestic_policy}
Domestically, Andriscus implemented a strongly anti-Roman and anti-Republican policy. Ancient historians interpreted this as his cruelty and tyranny; it has been suggested that these were simply manifestations of his anti-Roman policy and his persecutions of his opponents, including pro-Roman republicans.
At the same time, it is also possible that he was indeed tyrannical. His persecutions increased significantly after his victory over Thalna, costing him significant popularity; this would have dire consequences for him later.
### Coinage
The extent and nature of Andriscus\' coinage is a matter of debate. It has been suggested that many of his coins were overstrikes of previous Antigonid, republican and Roman coinage. He issued a very small amount of silver drachmae, on which he pictured himself as a Hellenistic king, and added Herakles on the reverse. Only three coins of Andriscus are known, two of which are overstruck, one on a drachm of the Thessalian League, the other on a Roman denarius. It is therefore possible that he also used the denarii he seized as booty after his victory against Thalna to mint his own coins. The coins are also of poor quality, due to the short duration of his reign, the need to reuse old dies and the need to quickly produce wartime coinage.
Some non-royal coinage has also been discovered and dated to the period of his reign, possibly struck by the remnants of the pro-Roman republics. It has also been suggested that the king was more liberal than implied by the sources, and allowed some degree of independent coinage.
| 666 |
Andriscus
| 3 |
1,759 |
## Downfall and death {#downfall_and_death}
Thalna\'s defeat shook Roman prestige in the East, and made the Senate realize the full significance of the revolt. They organized a full consular army of two legions under praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus, to defeat Andriscus and check, if not quell, his uprising. Arriving in Greece in 148 BC, Metellus marched along the Thessalian coast in a combined land and sea advance, while the allied Pergamene fleet threatened the coastal district of northern Macedonia. To protect himself against both offensives, Andriscus took up a defensive position with his main army at Pydna, where Metellus engaged him in battle. In the ensuing Battle of Pydna, Andrisus was decisively defeated. His harsh persecutions during his reign now showed their consequences; this single battle was enough to make him lose control of Macedon, as the people submitted to Metellus. He was forced to flee to Thrace, his original base of support, and began organizing a new army; however, Metellus pursued him swiftly and routed his forces before he could prepare them. Andriscus then fled to the Thracian princeling Byzes; however, Metellus managed to persuade the latter into becoming a Roman ally and handing Andriscus over as a prisoner, ending his reign.
He remained a prisoner over the next two years, while Metellus subdued any remaining Macedonian resistance, organized Macedon as a province and settled the Achaean War of 146 BC. When Metellus returned to Rome in 146 BC, he received the agnomen *Macedonicus* for his victory and was granted a triumph. Andriscus was brought in chains and paraded in the triumph, and later executed --- the last king to reign over Macedon.
| 274 |
Andriscus
| 4 |
1,759 |
## Assessment and legacy {#assessment_and_legacy}
Ancient sources are extremely hostile, not only to the origins and claims, but also of the character of Andriscus --- Diodorus calls him \"shot through with cruelty, greed and every base quality\"; Dio and Livy call him \"a man of the lowest kind\". They also describe him as cruel and tyrannical; accusations of tyranny probably reflect his harsh persecutions of pro-Roman and pro-republican elements in Macedon. At the same time, it is possible that he was indeed tyrannical, especially after his victory over Thalna, and perpetrated acts of terrorism and repression against his subjects.
His main legacy was that in the aftermath of his revolt, the Romans understood the strength of anti-Roman feeling that had arisen in Macedon, and realized that the old administration could not be sustained --- a thorough reorganization was necessary. Another reason why reorganization was necessary was that Andriscus\' persecutions had killed many pro-Roman republicans and thoroughly disrupted the old administrative structure; it would be difficult to re-establish it. Therefore, the Senate made Macedon a Roman province, with Metellus as its first governor
| 182 |
Andriscus
| 5 |
1,761 |
*Pandoc failed*: ```
Error at (line 103, column 2):
unexpected 'f'
for 1321<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=9782036274082 |pages=841–843 |language=en}}</ref>
^
``
| 34 |
Andronikos II Palaiologos
| 0 |
1,762 |
**Andronikos I Komnenos** (*Andrónikos Komnēnós*; `{{c.|1118/1120|lk=no}}`{=mediawiki} -- 12 September 1185), Latinized as **Andronicus I Comnenus**, was Byzantine emperor from 1183 to 1185. A nephew of John II Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1118--1143), Andronikos rose to fame in the reign of his cousin Manuel I Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1143--1180), during which his life was marked by political failures, adventures, scandalous romances, and rivalry with the emperor.
After Manuel\'s death in 1180, the elderly Andronikos rose to prominence as the accession of the young Alexios II Komnenos led to power struggles in Constantinople. In 1182, Andronikos seized power in the capital, ostensibly as a guardian of the young emperor. Andronikos swiftly and ruthlessly eliminated his political rivals, including Alexios II\'s mother and regent, Maria of Antioch. In September 1183, Andronikos was crowned as co-emperor and had Alexios murdered, assuming power in his own name. Andronikos staunchly opposed the powerful Byzantine aristocracy and enacted brutal measures to curb their influence. Although he faced several revolts and the empire became increasingly unstable, his reforms had a favorable effect on the common citizenry. The capture of Thessaloniki by William II of Sicily in 1185 turned the people of Constantinople against Andronikos, who was captured and brutally murdered.
Andronikos was the last Byzantine emperor of the Komnenos dynasty (1081--1185). He was vilified as a tyrant by later Byzantine writers, with one historian calling him \"**Misophaes**\" (*μισοφαής*, `{{lit|hater of sunlight}}`{=mediawiki}) in reference to the great number of enemies he had blinded. The anti-aristocratic policies pursued by Andronikos destroyed the Komnenian system implemented by his predecessors. His reforms and policies were reversed by the succeeding Angelos dynasty (1185--1204), which contributed to the collapse of imperial central authority. When the Byzantine Empire was temporarily overthrown in the Fourth Crusade (1204), Andronikos\' descendants established the Empire of Trebizond, where the Komnenoi continued to rule until 1461.
## Early life and character {#early_life_and_character}
Andronikos Komnenos was born in c. 1118--1120, the son of the *sebastokrator* Isaac Komnenos and his wife Irene. Andronikos had three siblings: the older brother John and two older sisters, one of which was named Anna. Andronikos was the nephew of the reigning emperor, John II Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1118--1143), and grew up together with his cousin (and John\'s successor) Manuel I Komnenos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1143--1180).
In 1130, Andronikos\'s father was involved in a conspiracy against John II while the emperor was away from Constantinople on campaign against the Sultanate of Rum. The conspiracy was uncovered but Isaac and his sons fled the capital and found refuge at the court of the Danishmendid emir Gümüshtigin Ghazi at Melitene. The family spent six years on the run, traveling to Trebizond, Armenian Cilicia, and eventually the Sultanate of Rum, before Isaac reconciled with John II and the emperor forgave him.
According to the historian Anthony Kaldellis, Andronikos was \"one of the most colorful and versatile personalities of the age\". He was tall, handsome, and brave, but a poor strategist, and was known for his good looks, intellect, charm, and elegance.
| 491 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 0 |
1,762 |
## Reign of Manuel I (1143--1180) {#reign_of_manuel_i_11431180}
### Imperial career {#imperial_career}
Manuel I Komnenos began his reign as emperor on good terms with Andronikos. Andronikos showed no signs of treachery towards his cousin and Manuel was fond of his company since the two were of similar age and had grown up together. Andronikos took offence when officials spoke badly of Manuel\'s governance and was lent Manuel\'s favorite horse while they were on military campaigns. Similar in personality, the friendship between Manuel and Andronikos only gradually transitioned into rivalry.
Manuel never succeeded in integrating Andronikos into the imperial family power network. Although talented and impressive as a person, Andronikos typically handled tasks entrusted to him carelessly. Relations between Manuel and Andronikos deteriorated in 1148, when Manuel appointed his favorite nephew John Doukas Komnenos as *protovestiarios* and *protosebastos*. These appointments were the last in a long line of extraordinary favors given to John and greatly wounded Andronikos, who from then on became involved in various intrigues against the emperor.
In 1151--1152, Manuel sent Andronikos with an army against Thoros II of Armenian Cilicia, who had conquered large parts of Byzantine-held Cilicia. The campaign was a dismal failure, as Thoros defeated Andronikos and occupied even more of Cilicia. Andronikos was nevertheless made governor of the portions that remained in imperial control.
In the winter of 1152--1153, the imperial court was at Pelagonia in Macedonia, perhaps for recreational hunting. During the stay there, Andronikos slept in the same tent as Eudokia Komnene, Manuel\'s niece and sister of John Komnenos Doukas, committing incest. When Eudokia\'s family attempted to catch the two in the act and assassinate Andronikos, he escaped by cutting a hole in the side of the tent with his sword. Manuel criticized the affair but Andronikos answered him that \"subjects should always follow their master\'s example\", alluding to well-founded rumors of the emperor himself having an incestuous relationship with Eudokia\'s sister Theodora.
Andronikos actively conspired against Manuel in the early 1150s, together with Baldwin III of Jerusalem and Mesud I of Rum. He was then removed from his command in Cilicia and transferred to oversee the governance of Branitzova and Naissus in the west. Not long thereafter, Andronikos promised to turn over these towns to Géza II of Hungary in return for aid in seizing the imperial throne. In 1155, Andronikos was imprisoned by Manuel in the imperial palace. According to Niketas Choniates, the imprisonment was a direct result of his plot to usurp the throne with Hungarian aid, and his affair with Eudokia. John Kinnamos, however, claims that Manuel knew of the intrigues and did not punish Andronikos until he uttered death threats to John Komnenos Doukas.
| 445 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 1 |
1,762 |
## Reign of Manuel I (1143--1180) {#reign_of_manuel_i_11431180}
### Escapes from prison {#escapes_from_prison}
Andronikos escaped from prison in 1159, while Manuel was away on campaign in Cilicia and Syria. Having discovered an ancient underground passage beneath his cell, he dug his way down using only his hands and managed to conceal the opening so that the guards were unable to find any damage to the cell. The escape was reported to Manuel\'s wife, Empress Bertha-Irene, and a great search was ordered in Constantinople. In Andronikos\'s stead, his wife was briefly imprisoned in the same cell. According to Niketas Choniates, Andronikos soon emerged up into the cell again, embraced and had sex with his wife, conceiving his second son John. Andronikos then escaped the capital but was caught in Melangeia in Thrace by a soldier named Nikaias and imprisoned again with stronger chains and more guards.
Andronikos escaped prison for a second time in 1164. He had pretended to be ill and was provided with a boy to see to his physical needs. Andronikos convinced the boy to make wax impressions of the keys to his cell and to bring these impressions to Andronikos\'s elder son, Manuel. Manuel forged copies of the keys, which the boy used to let Andronikos out. Andronikos spent three days hiding in tall grass near the palace, before trying to flee in a fishing boat alongside a fisherman named Chysochoöpolos. The two were caught by guards, but Andronikos convinced them that he was an escaped slave and was let go out of compassion. Andronikos then made his way to his home, said goodbye to his family, and fled the capital, traveling beyond the Carpathian Mountains.
Andronikos first spent some time in Halych, where he was briefly captured by Vlachs from Moldavia who intended to bring him back to Manuel. During his captivity, Andronikos pretended to suffer from infectious diarrhea, requiring frequent stops to dismount and defecate alone and at a distance. One night, he made a dummy out of his cloak, hat, and staff, in the position of a man defecating. While the Vlachs watched the dummy, Andronikos managed to escape. He then made his way to Galicia, where he was well received by Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl.
During his time at Yaroslav\'s court, Andronikos tried to recruit the Cumans to aid him in an invasion of the Byzantine Empire. Despite these efforts, Manuel sought to reconcile with him and managed to form an anti-Hungarian alliance with Yaroslav. When the Byzantines and Galicians joined forces in a combined invasion of Hungary in the 1160s, Andronikos led a force of Galicians and assisted Manuel during a siege of Semlin. The campaign was a success and Andronikos returned with Manuel to Constantinople. In 1166, Andronikos was removed from court for refusing to take an oath of allegiance to then designated heir, Béla III of Hungary, but was entrusted once again to govern Cilicia.
| 483 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 2 |
1,762 |
## Reign of Manuel I (1143--1180) {#reign_of_manuel_i_11431180}
### Exile
In 1167, Andronikos deserted his post in Cilicia and traveled to Antioch, where he seduced Philippa of Antioch. Philippa was the sister of both Manuel\'s second wife Maria and Bohemond III, the reigning prince of Antioch. The affair caused a scandal and threatened to jeopardize Manuel\'s foreign policy. Bohemond formally complained to the emperor that Andronikos was neglecting his duties in Cilicia and instead dallying with Philippa. Manuel was outraged and immediately recalled Andronikos, replacing him as governor in Cilicia with Constantine Kalamanos. Kalamanos was also dispatched to attempt to wed Philippa. Upon meeting Kalamanos, the princess refused to address him by name, berated him for being short, and derided Manuel as \"stupid and simple-minded\" for believing she would forsake Andronikos for a man from such an obscure family line. Andronikos refused to return home and instead fled with Philippa to Jerusalem, where King Amalric gave him Beirut as a fief to govern.
Andronikos left Philippa in 1168 and instead seduced the dowager queen Theodora Komnene, widow of Amalric\'s brother Baldwin III and daughter of Andronikos\'s cousin Isaac. Theodora was 21 years old at the time. The historian John Julius Norwich has described Theodora as the love of Andronikos\'s life, though their close relation made them unable to marry. Manuel was furious over this affair as well and again ordered Andronikos to return home. Fearing that Amalric would back Manuel, Andronikos feigned acceptance. He traveled to Acre without Theodora, though she suddenly arrived after him and the two eloped together to the court of Nur al-Din Zengi in Damascus. The arrival of a Byzantine prince and a dowager-queen of Jerusalem in Damascus became a sensation in the Muslim world and they were welcomed with much enthusiasm.
Andronikos and Theodora traveled from court to court for several years, making their way through Anatolia and the Caucasus. They were eventually received by George III of Georgia and Andronikos was granted estates in Kakhetia. In 1173 or 1174, Andronikos accompanied George on a military expedition to Shirvan up to the Caspian shores, where the Georgians recaptured the fortress of Shabaran from invaders from Darband for his cousin, the Shirvanshah Akhsitan I.
Andronikos and Theodora eventually settled in Koloneia in northeastern Anatolia, just beyond the frontier of the Byzantine Empire. Their peaceful life there came to an end when imperial officials captured Theodora and their two children and brought them to Constantinople. After over a decade in exile, Andronikos returned to Constantinople in 1180 and theatrically pleaded for forgiveness from Manuel with a chain around his neck, begging that Theodora and the children be returned. The two reconciled, and Andronikos was sent to govern Paphlagonia, where he lived with Theodora in a castle on the Black Sea coast. The arrangement was understood as internal exile and peaceful retirement. Theodora\'s ultimate fate is not known, though she likely died before Andronikos\'s return to imperial politics in 1182.
| 491 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 3 |
1,762 |
## Reign of Alexios II (1180--1183) {#reign_of_alexios_ii_11801183}
### Power struggle {#power_struggle}
Manuel died on 24 September 1180 and the throne was inherited by his eleven-year-old son, Alexios II Komnenos. A regency was set up for the young emperor, led by Manuel\'s widow, Maria of Antioch. Manuel had made his officials and nobles swear to obey Maria as regent, on the condition that she became a nun (which she did) and guarded the honor of the empire and their son. Maria was supported by Patriarch Theodosios Borradiotes and the *prōtosebastos* Alexios Komnenos, a nephew of Manuel. Despite this, she was in a dangerous position. She was of Latin (i.e. Catholic/Western European) origin and regent for a minor with ambitious relatives. Manuel had throughout his reign sought to integrate the empire into the world of the Latin states in the West and Levant through diplomacy. His efforts were largely unsuccessful, as Latin polities began to regard themselves as having a say in imperial politics and anti-Latin sentiment grew among the populace of the empire. Maria of Antioch was young and beautiful, leading to power struggles between officials who sought her favor. Little political attention was given to Alexios II, who as a child was devoted entirely to pursuits such as chariot races and hunting. The perceived pro-Latin stance of the regency and rumors that Maria and Alexios the *prōtosebastos* were lovers, as well as suspicions that the *prōtosebastos* planned to seize the throne for himself, led to the formation of a court faction opposed to the regency. Some of Maria\'s supporters also began to abandon her as the favors they sought were increasingly given to the *prōtosebastos*. The opposition was led by Manuel\'s daughter, Maria Komnene, her husband Renier of Montferrat, and Manuel\'s illegitimate son Alexios.
In early 1181, a plot to assassinate the *prōtosebastos* was uncovered and many were arrested. Maria Komnene and Renier sought asylum in the Hagia Sophia and were supported by Patriarch Theodosios and the clergy. The two conspirators turned the church into a stronghold and issued demands that the *prōtosebastos* be removed from office and that those arrested should be released. The citizenry of Constantinople were split between the two factions. Clashes erupted throughout the capital, lasting for two months. Maria Komnene, supported by the clergy, portrayed her revolt against the regency as a holy war. With the government focused on the power struggle, the empire swiftly lost territory to foreign enemies. Béla III of Hungary conquered Dalmatia and Sirmium, and Kilij Arslan II of Rum conquered Sozopolis and besieged Attaleia.
Peace was brokered in the capital by the *megas doux* Andronikos Kontostephanos and the patriarch but the conflict was not resolved. In 1182, Maria Komnene and other nobles sent for Andronikos in Paphlagonia, inviting him to the capital to assume the protection of Alexios II. Andronikos was by this time in his early sixties and regarded by some as an elder statesman. Because of his exile away from the affairs in the capital, he was seen as an impartial outsider who could champion the young emperor\'s best interests. Maria Komnene could also assume that he would be supportive of her since Andronikos\'s sons Manuel and John had been involved in her revolt. In the spring of 1182, Andronikos assembled an army and marched on Constantinople. He portrayed himself as a champion of Alexios II, accused Maria of Antioch and the *prōtosebastos* of conspiracy, and falsely claimed that Manuel had appointed him as one of Alexios II\'s regents. The general Andronikos Angelos was sent to intercept Andronikos but was defeated, fled back to Constantinople, and quickly defected to Andronikos out of fear of his failure being punished. Once Andronikos reached the Bosporus, public opinion in Constantinople was firmly on his side. The *prōtosebastos* organized a fleet to stop Andronikos, led by Kontostephanos, though Kontostephanos likewise defected to the rebel\'s side.
| 643 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 4 |
1,762 |
## Reign of Alexios II (1180--1183) {#reign_of_alexios_ii_11801183}
### Regent in Constantinople {#regent_in_constantinople}
With no military forces left to oppose Andronikos, the *prōtosebastos* was taken captive and taken across the Bosporus to Andronikos\'s camp, where he was blinded. Andronikos then ferried his troops to the city and took control virtually without opposition. He almost immediately made his way to the Pantokrator Monastery, apparently to pay his respects to the tomb of Manuel.
Soon after Andronikos gained control of Constantinople in April 1182, the Massacre of the Latins erupted in the city. Andronikos made no effort to stop the pogroms, instead referring to them as a \"defeat of the tyranny of the Latins\" and a \"restoration of Roman affairs\". There is no evidence that Andronikos was particularly anti-Latin on a personal level but the massacre was politically useful since anti-Latin sentiment had helped bring him to power and because many Latins in the city had supported Maria of Antioch\'s regency. The bulk of Constantinople\'s Latin population were either killed or forced to flee and the Latin quarters were plundered and set on fire. According to Eustathius of Thessalonica, approximately 60,000 people were killed though this number is likely exaggerated. A papal delegate visiting Constantinople was decapitated and his head was tied to the tail of a dog.
In May, Patriarch Theodosios formally handed Constantinople over to Andronikos. The patriarch and Andronikos ensured that Alexios II was formally crowned as emperor on 16 May 1182. Andronikos carried the young emperor into Hagia Sophia on his shoulders and acted as a devoted supporter. Andronikos soon dealt with his political rivals as well as all major schemers during Maria of Antioch\'s regency, including those who had supported him. The blinded *prōtosebastos* was exiled to a monastery. Both Maria Komnene and Renier of Montferrat were poisoned within a few months. Andronikos Kontostephanos was suspected of conspiracy and blinded alongside his four sons in the summer of 1183. Maria of Antioch remained an obstacle since she was legally appointed as regent. Andronikos had Patriarch Theodosios agree on expelling her from the palace and then had her prosecuted for treason on the basis that she had asked her brother-in-law, Béla III of Hungary, for help. Found guilty, Maria was imprisoned and Andronikos had Alexios II sign a document condemning her to death. The empress was strangled to death and subjected to *damnatio memoriae*, with her portraits in public places being replaced with imagery of Andronikos.
In the place of Manuel\'s officials, Andronikos raised up his own loyalists, such as Michael Haploucheir and Stephen Hagiochristophorites. The execution of Maria of Antioch left the young Alexios II without protection. Andronikos had some of the clergy formally absolve him of his oaths to Manuel and Alexios II and was crowned as co-emperor in September 1183. Soon thereafter, Alexios II was strangled and his body was thrown in the sea, encased in lead. Just over a year after taking power as the young emperor\'s guardian, Andronikos had thus had him suppressed and killed and now ruled in his own name.
| 508 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 5 |
1,762 |
## Reign (1183--1185) {#reign_11831185}
Andronikos\'s assumption of sole power rapidly plunged the empire into further instability. The elimination of Alexios II made Andronikos dependent on a power base bound only to him through self-interest. In Alexios\'s place, Andronikos in November 1183 named his son John as co-emperor and heir. The choice likely fell on the younger John rather than the older son, Manuel, since John was considered more loyal and his name adhered to the AIMA prophecy. One of the only members of the previous immediate imperial family to survive Andronikos\'s rise to power was Agnes of France, Alexios II\'s young French wife. To increase his legitimacy, the elderly Andronikos controversially married the eleven-year-old empress.
Andronikos concentrated his political efforts on internal affairs and was determined to curtail the power of the aristocracy and stop corruption, returning absolute control of the state to the hands of the emperor. Under the preceding Komnenoi emperors, regional magnates had acquired vast power, managing their administrations at will and exploiting peasants and common citizens. Although often brutal, Andronikos was generally successful in his anti-aristocratic measures and his policies had a favorable effect on the citizenry. Because the emperor directly endangered their positions, aristocrats were uncooperative and many rose in revolt, in turn being suppressed with cruelty and terror. The situation soon evolved into a reign of terror where even suspicion of disloyalty could result in disgrace and execution. There were imperial spies everywhere, night arrests, and sham trials. Andronikos\'s purges were not limited to Constantinople. In the spring of 1184, the emperor marched into Anatolia to punish the cities of Nicaea and Prusa, which opposed his accession. The rebels included the aristocrat Isaac Angelos and his family. During the siege, Andronikos had Isaac\'s mother Euphrosyne placed on top of a battering ram to deter the defenders from trying to destroy it. After Prusa was taken by storm, several of the defenders were impaled outside the city walls, though Isaac was spared due to surrendering in return for immunity.
Other than his brutal suppression of aristocrats, Andronikos attempted to put sensible policies in place to secure the well-being of the peasantry and provincial administration of the empire. The taxation system was overhauled in an attempt to root out corruption and ensure that only regular taxes were paid (and not surcharges imposed by tax farmers). He further legislated that offices for collecting revenue were to be awarded based on merit and not sold to the highest bidder. Andronikos was receptive to accusations against aristocrats by the common people and the prosperity of the provincial population increased under his rule. The emperor actively responded to complaints of inequality and corruption, and tried to shorten the gap between the provinces and the capital, seeking to solve problems that had originated in Manuel\'s pro-aristocratic reign.
The brutality enacted against the ruling class caused the alliances built up under Manuel in the Balkans to fall apart. Béla III of Hungary invaded the empire in 1183, posing as an avenger of Maria of Antioch, but was driven away in 1184. During this conflict, Stefan Nemanja managed to secure Serbian independence from the empire. The suppression of aristocrats and rivals, some of whom were Andronikos\'s family members, led to many Byzantine nobles fleeing the empire in search of aid. Komnenian princelings are recorded as having approached figures such as the king of Hungary, the sultan of Rum, the marquis of Montferrat, the pope, the king of Jerusalem, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa with pleas of intervention, stirring up further trouble against the empire. In 1184, Andronikos\'s cousin Isaac Komnenos seized Cyprus and ruled there independently; in retaliation, Andronikos had two of Isaac\'s relatives stoned and impaled.
| 615 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 6 |
1,762 |
## Downfall and death {#downfall_and_death}
In 1185, the *pinkernēs* Alexios Komnenos, a great-nephew of Manuel, approached William II of Sicily with a request for aid against Andronikos. William invaded the Byzantine Empire and successfully captured both Dyrrhachium and Thessaloniki in the name of a young man pretending to be Alexios II. The capture of Thessaloniki in August 1185 was followed by a brutal sack of the city, portrayed by the chronicler William of Tyre as if the Sicilians were \"making war on God himself\", and as revenge for the Massacre of the Latins. With Thessaloniki captured, the Sicilians turned their eyes towards Constantinople. The war, however, slowly shifted in Andronikos\'s favor. The Byzantines successfully split up the invaders into several smaller forces and were slowing down their advance eastwards. Despite beginning to turn the tide, the atmosphere in Constantinople was tense and fearful and the fall of Thessaloniki had turned the common people of the city, previously strong supporters of Andronikos, against the emperor.
During this time, Andronikos sent Stephen Hagiochristophorites to arrest the earlier rebel Isaac Angelos, who was a matrilineal relative of the Komnenos dynasty. Isaac panicked, killed Hagiochristophorites, and sought refuge in the Hagia Sophia. Finding himself at the center of popular demonstrations against Andronikos, Isaac unwittingly became the champion of an uprising and was proclaimed emperor. Andronikos tried to flee Constantinople in a boat but was captured and brought to Isaac.
Isaac handed Andronikos over to the incensed people of Constantinople. Andronikos was tied to a post and brutally beaten for three days. Alongside numerous other punishments, his right hand was cut off, his teeth and hair were pulled out, one of his eyes was gouged out, and boiling water was thrown in his face. Andronikos was then taken to the Hippodrome, where he was hung by his feet between two pillars. Two Latin soldiers competed over whose sword could penetrate his body more deeply, and Andronikos\'s body was eventually torn apart. According to Niketas Choniates, Andronikos endured the brutality bravely, and retained his senses throughout the ordeal. He died on 12 September 1185, and his remains were left unburied and visible for several years afterwards. At the news of Andronikos\'s death, his son and co-emperor John was murdered by his own troops in Thrace.
| 379 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 7 |
1,762 |
## Family
Andronikos was married twice and had numerous mistresses. He had three children with his first wife, whose name is not recorded:
- Manuel Komnenos (1145--after 1185), an ambassador under Manuel I and opposed to many of the policies of his father. Manuel was blinded by the new regime established by Isaac Angelos and disappears from the sources thereafter. He was married to the Georgian princess Rusudan and the couple had two sons, Alexios and David Komnenos. In 1204, Alexios and David founded the Empire of Trebizond, which continued to be ruled by their descendants. Trapezuntine efforts to gain influence and power in the wider Byzantine world were hindered both by geography and by their emperors descending from Andronikos.
- John Komnenos (1159--1185), co-emperor with Andronikos. Murdered by his own troops after Andronikos\'s death in September 1185.
- Maria Komnene (born c. 1166), married to the nobleman Theodore Synadenos in 1182 and then to a nobleman named Romanos. Romanos is noted for mishandling the defence of Dyrrhachium against the Sicilians in 1185. The fates of Maria and Romanos after Andronikos\'s death are unknown.
Andronikos had no children with his second wife, Agnes of France, nor any known illegitimate children with any of his mistresses other than his long-term partner Theodora Komnene, with whom he had two:
- Alexios Komnenos (1170--c. 1199), fled to Georgia after 1185, where he married into the local nobility. Claimed descendants include the noble family of Andronikashvili.
- Irene Komnene (born 1171), married to the *sebastokrator* Alexios Komnenos, an illegitimate son of Manuel I. Alexios was involved in a conspiracy in October 1183, whereafter he was blinded and imprisoned and Irene became a nun.
| 279 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 8 |
1,762 |
## Legacy
Andronikos\'s fall from power ended the rule of the Komnenos dynasty, which had governed the Byzantine Empire since 1081. He was vilified as a tyrant in Byzantine writings after his death. The later Angeloi emperors made it official imperial policy that Andronikos had been a tyrant, echoed in all texts addressed to them or their officials. This policy included changing earlier texts; in the writings of Theodore Balsamon, for instance, all references to Andronikos as *basileus* (emperor) were replaced by *tyrannos*. Nicetas Choniates, a contemporary historian, called Andronikos \"Misophaes\" (*μισοφαής*, `{{lit|hater of sunlight}}`{=mediawiki}) in reference to the great number of enemies he had blinded.
The earlier Komnenoi emperors had instituted the Komnenian system of administration, family rule, and financial and military obligations. This system allowed the empire to achieve prosperity and some internal stability. It also greatly increased the power and wealth of the landowning provincial aristocracy. Aristocrats had become able to run their administrations at will, exploit common citizens, and withhold funds from the central government to use for their own purposes. At its extreme, this could allow for independent local governments, such as that of Isaac Komnenos in Cyprus and the later realm ruled by Leo Sgouros in the Peloponnese. The power and abuses of the aristocracy was a very real issue, recognized by Andronikos, which ultimately contributed to the empire\'s catastrophic decline after his death.
Through his reforms and brutal suppression, Andronikos destroyed the Komnenian system, though his death ended all attempts to curb the power of the aristocracy. Over the course of the subsequent Angelos dynasty, aristocratic power instead increased and the empire\'s central authority collapsed. Though blame for Byzantine decline has in the past been levied at Andronikos\'s brutal rule, his brutal efforts did little damage to the empire\'s long-term stability since they were largely confined to the ruling class, mostly in Constantinople itself. His domestic reforms were largely sensible, though imposed too hastily, and his brutal fall from power after a short reign stopped any chance of repairing the system. The Angeloi emperors, Isaac II Angelos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1185--1195) and Alexios III Angelos (`{{Reign}}`{=mediawiki}1195--1203), faced problems of manpower directly resulting from the increasingly decentralized empire.
The historian Paul Magdalino suggested in 1993 that Andronikos\'s reign saw the setting of the precedents that allowed the Fourth Crusade (1202--1204) to transpire, including an increasingly anti-Latin foreign policy as well as the phenomenon of relatives of the imperial family traveling abroad in the hope of securing foreign intervention in imperial politics.
Several scholars, including Jonathan Bate and Geoffrey Bullough have suggested that William Shakespeare\'s play *The Lamentable Tragedy of Titus Andronicus* was loosely based on Andronikos\'s life
| 440 |
Andronikos I Komnenos
| 9 |
1,763 |
**Andronicus of Cyrrhus** or **Andronicus Cyrrhestes** (Latin; *Ἀνδρόνικος Κυρρήστης*, *Andrónikos Kyrrhēstēs*; `{{fl.|{{c.|100}}{{nbsp}}BC}}`{=mediawiki}) was a Macedonian astronomer best known for designing the Tower of the Winds in Roman Athens.
## Life
Little is known about the life of Andronicus, although his father is recorded as Hermias. It is usually assumed that he came from the Cyrrhus in Macedonia rather than the one in Syria.
## Work
Andronicus is usually credited with the construction of the Tower of the Winds in the Roman forum at Athens around `{{nowrap|50 BC,}}`{=mediawiki} a considerable portion of which still exists. It is octagonal, with figures of the eight principal winds (Anemoi) carved on the appropriate side. Originally, a bronze figure of Triton was placed on the summit that was turned round by the wind so that the rod in his hand pointed to the correct wind direction, an idea replicated with subsequent wind vanes. The interior housed a large clepsydra and there were multiple sundials on the exterior, so that it functioned as a kind of early clocktower.
He also built a multifaced sundial for the Temple of Poseidon on the island of Tinos
| 188 |
Andronicus of Cyrrhus
| 0 |
1,767 |
**Ammianus Marcellinus**, occasionally anglicized as **Ammian** (Greek: Αμμιανός Μαρκελλίνος; born c. 330, died c. lk=no`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}400), was a Greek and Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). Written in Latin and known as the *Res gestae*, his work chronicled the history of Rome from the accession of Emperor Nerva in 96 to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Only the sections covering the period 353 to 378 survive.
## Biography
Ammianus was born in the East Mediterranean, possibly in Syria or Phoenicia, around 330, into a noble family of Greek origin. Since he calls himself *Graecus* (`{{lit}}`{=mediawiki} Greek), he was most likely born in a Greek-speaking area of the empire. His native language was Greek, but he also knew Latin. The surviving books of his history cover the years 353 to 378.
Ammianus began his career as a military officer in the Praetorian Guard, where he gained firsthand experience in various military campaigns. He served as an officer in the army of the emperors Constantius II and Julian. He served in Gaul (Julian) and in the east (twice for Constantius, once under Julian). He professes to have been \"a former soldier and a Greek\" (*miles quondam et graecus*), and his enrollment among the elite *protectors domestic* (household guards) shows that he was of the middle class or higher birth. Consensus is that Ammianus probably came from a curial family, but it is also possible that he was the son of a *comes Orientis* of the same family name. He entered the army at an early age, when Constantius II was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and *magister militum*. Ammianus campaigned in the East twice under Ursicinus.
thumb\|upright=1.3\|The walls of Amida, built by Constantius II before the Siege of Amida of 359. Ammianus himself was present in the city until a day before its fall. He traveled with Ursicinus to Italy in an expedition against Silvanus, an officer who had proclaimed himself emperor in Gaul. Ursicinus ended the threat by having Silvanus assassinated, then stayed in the region to help install Julian as Caesar of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. Ammianus probably met Julian for the first time while serving on Ursicinus\' staff in Gaul.
In 359, Constantius sent Ursicinus back to the east to help in the defense against a Persian invasion led by King Shapur II himself. Ammianus returned with his commander to the East and again served Ursicinus as a staff officer. Ursicinus, although he was the more experienced commander, was placed under the command of Sabinianus, the *Magister Peditum* of the east. The two did not get along, resulting in a lack of cooperation between the Limitanei (border regiments) of Mesopotamia and Osrhoene under Ursicinus\' command and the *comitatus* (field army) of Sabinianus. While on a mission near Nisibis, Ammianus spotted a Persian patrol which was about to try and capture Ursicinus, and warned his commander in time. In an attempt to locate the Persian Royal Army, Ursicinus sent Ammianus to Jovinianus, the semi-independent governor of Corduene, and a friend of Ursicinus. Ammianus successfully located the Persian main body and reported his findings to Ursicinus.
After his mission in Corduene, Ammianus left the headquarters at Amida in the retinue of Ursinicus, who was on a mission to make sure the bridges across the Euphrates were demolished. They were attacked by the Persian vanguard, who had made a night march in an attempt to catch the Romans at Amida unprepared. After a protracted cavalry battle, the Romans were scattered; Ursicinus evaded capture and fled to Melitene, while Ammianus made a difficult journey back to Amida with a wounded comrade. The Persians besieged and eventually sacked Amida, and Ammianus barely escaped with his life.
When Ursicinus was dismissed from his military post by Constantius, Ammianus too seems to have retired from the military; however, reevaluation of his participation in Julian\'s Persian campaign has led modern scholarship to suggest that he continued his service but did not for some reason include the period in his history. He accompanied Julian, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Sassanids. After Julian\'s death, Ammianus accompanied the retreat of the new emperor, Jovian, as far as Antioch. He was residing in Antioch in 372 when a certain Theodorus was thought to have been identified as the successor to the emperor Valens by divination. Speaking as an alleged eyewitness, Marcellinus recounts how Theodorus and several others were made to confess their deceit through the use of torture, and cruelly punished.
He eventually settled in Rome and began the *Res gestae*. The precise year of his death is unknown, but scholarly consensus places it somewhere between 392 and 400 at the latest.
Modern scholarship generally describes Ammianus as a pagan who was tolerant of Christianity. Marcellinus writes of Christianity as being a \"plain and simple\" religion that demands only what is just and mild, and when he condemns the actions of Christians, he does not do so based on their Christianity as such. His lifetime was marked by lengthy outbreaks of sectarian and dogmatic strife within the new state-backed faith, often with violent consequences (especially the Arian controversy) and these conflicts sometimes appeared unworthy to him, though it was territory where he could not risk going very far in criticism, due to the growing and volatile political connections between the church and imperial power.
Ammianus was not blind to the faults of Christians or of pagans and was especially critical of them; he commented that \"no wild beasts are so hostile to men as Christian sects, in general, are to one another\" and he condemns the emperor Julian for excessive attachment to (pagan) sacrifice, and for his edict effectively barring Christians from teaching posts.
| 978 |
Ammianus Marcellinus
| 0 |
1,767 |
## Work
While living in Rome in the 380s, Ammianus wrote a Latin history of the Roman empire from the accession of Nerva (96) to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople (378), in effect writing a continuation of the history of Tacitus. At 22.16.12, he praises the Serapeum of Alexandria in Egypt as the glory of the empire, so his work was presumably completed before the destruction of that building in 391.
The *Res gestae* (*Rerum gestarum libri XXXI*) was originally composed of thirty-one books, but the first thirteen have been lost. The surviving eighteen books, covering the period from 353 to 378, constitute the foundation of modern understanding of the history of the fourth-century Roman Empire. They are lauded as a clear, comprehensive, and generally impartial account of events by a contemporary; like many ancient historians, however, Ammianus was in fact not impartial, although he expresses an intention to be so, and had strong moral and religious prejudices. Although criticized as lacking literary merit by his early biographers, he was in fact quite skilled in rhetoric, which significantly has brought the veracity of some of the *Res gestae* into question.
His work has suffered substantially from manuscript transmission. Aside from the loss of the first thirteen books, the remaining eighteen are in many places corrupt and lacunose. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth-century Carolingian text, Vatican lat. 1873 (*V*), produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in Fragmenta Marbugensia (*M*), another ninth-century Frankish codex which was taken apart to provide covers for account-books during the fifteenth century. Only six leaves of *M* survive; however, before this manuscript was dismantled the Abbot of Hersfeld lent the manuscript to Sigismund Gelenius, who used it in preparing the text of the second Froben edition (*G*). The dates and relationship of V and M were long disputed until 1936 when R. P. Robinson demonstrated persuasively that V was copied from M. As L. D. Reynolds summarizes, \"M is thus a fragment of the archetype; symptoms of an insular pre-archetype are evident.\"
His handling from his earliest printers was little better. The *editio princeps* was printed in 1474 in Rome by Georg Sachsel and Bartholomaeus Golsch, which broke off at the end of Book 26. The next edition (Bologna, 1517) suffered from its editor\'s conjectures upon the poor text of the 1474 edition; the 1474 edition was pirated for the first Froben edition (Basle, 1518). It was not until 1533 that the last five books of Ammianus\' history were put into print by Silvanus Otmar and edited by Mariangelus Accursius. The first modern edition was produced by C.U. Clark (Berlin, 1910--1913). The first English translations were by Philemon Holland in 1609, and later by C.D. Yonge in 1862.
| 473 |
Ammianus Marcellinus
| 1 |
1,767 |
## Reception
Edward Gibbon judged Ammianus \"an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary.\" But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: \"The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and disgusting accuracy.\" Austrian historian Ernst Stein praised Ammianus as \"the greatest literary genius that the world produced between Tacitus and Dante\".
According to Kimberly Kagan, his accounts of battles emphasize the experience of the soldiers but at the cost of ignoring the bigger picture. As a result, it is difficult for the reader to understand why the battles he describes had the outcome they did.
Ammianus\' work contains a detailed description of the earthquake and tsunami of 365 in Alexandria, which devastated the metropolis and the shores of the eastern Mediterranean on 21 July 365. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea, and sudden incoming giant wave
| 171 |
Ammianus Marcellinus
| 2 |
1,773 |
**Apollo 7** (October 11--22, 1968) was the first crewed flight in NASA\'s Apollo program, and saw the resumption of human spaceflight by the agency after the fire that had killed the three Apollo 1 astronauts during a launch rehearsal test on January 27, 1967. The Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew was commanded by Walter M. Schirra, with Command Module Pilot Donn F. Eisele and Lunar Module pilot R. Walter Cunningham (so designated even though Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 did not carry a Lunar Module).
The three astronauts were originally designated for the second crewed Apollo flight, and then as backups for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1. After the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 fire, crewed flights were suspended while the cause of the accident was investigated and improvements made to the spacecraft and safety procedures, and uncrewed test flights made. Determined to prevent a repetition of the fire, the crew spent long periods monitoring the construction of their Apollo command and service modules (CSM). Training continued over much of the `{{awrap|21-month}}`{=mediawiki} pause that followed the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 disaster.
Apollo 7 was launched on October 11, 1968, from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station, Florida, and splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean eleven days later. Extensive testing of the CSM took place, and also the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft. Despite tension between the crew and ground controllers, the mission was a complete technical success, giving NASA the confidence to send Apollo 8 into orbit around the Moon two months later. In part because of these tensions, none of the crew flew in space again, though Schirra had already announced he would retire from NASA after the flight. Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 fulfilled Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1\'s mission of testing the CSM in low Earth orbit, and was a significant step towards NASA\'s goal of landing astronauts on the Moon.
| 288 |
Apollo 7
| 0 |
1,773 |
## Background and personnel {#background_and_personnel}
Schirra, one of the original \"Mercury Seven\" astronauts, graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1945. He flew Mercury-Atlas 8 in 1962, the fifth crewed flight of Project Mercury and the third to reach orbit, and in 1965 was the command pilot for Gemini 6A. He was a 45-year-old captain in the Navy at the time of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Eisele graduated from the Naval Academy in 1952 with a B.S. in aeronautics. He elected to be commissioned in the Air Force, and was a 38-year-old major at the time of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Cunningham joined the U.S. Navy in 1951, began flight training the following year, and served in a Marine flight squadron from 1953 to 1956, and was a civilian, aged 36, serving in the Marine Corps reserves with a rank of major, at the time of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. He received degrees in physics from UCLA, a B.A. in 1960 and an M.A. in 1961. Both Eisele and Cunningham were selected as part of the third group of astronauts in 1963.
Eisele was originally slotted for a position on Gus Grissom\'s Apollo 1 crew along with Ed White, but days prior to the official announcement on March 25, 1966, Eisele sustained a shoulder injury that would require surgery. Instead, Roger Chaffee was given the position and Eisele was reassigned to Schirra\'s crew.
Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were first named as an Apollo crew on September 29, 1966. They were to fly a second Earth orbital test of the Apollo Command Module (CM). Although delighted as a rookie to be assigned to a prime crew without having served as a backup, Cunningham was troubled by the fact that a second Earth orbital test flight, dubbed Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}2, seemed unnecessary if Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 was successful. He learned later that Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, another of the Mercury Seven who had been grounded for medical reasons and supervised the astronauts, planned, with Schirra\'s support, to command the mission if he gained medical clearance. When this was not forthcoming, Schirra remained in command of the crew, and in November 1966, Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}2 was cancelled and Schirra\'s crew assigned as backup to Grissom\'s. Thomas P. Stafford---assigned at that point as the backup commander of the second orbital test---stated that the cancellation followed Schirra and his crew submitting a list of demands to NASA management (Schirra wanted the mission to include a lunar module and a CM capable of docking with it), and that the assignment as backups left Schirra complaining that Slayton and Chief Astronaut Alan Shepard had destroyed his career.
On January 27, 1967, Grissom\'s crew was conducting a launch-pad test for their planned February 21 mission, when a fire broke out in the cabin, killing all three men. A complete safety review of the Apollo program followed. Soon after the fire, Slayton asked Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham to fly the first mission after the pause. Apollo 7 would use the Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II spacecraft designed for the lunar missions, as opposed to the Block I CSM used for Apollo 1, which was intended only to be used for the early Earth-orbit missions, as it lacked the capability of docking with a lunar module. The CM and astronauts\' spacesuits had been extensively redesigned, to reduce any chance of a repeat of the accident which killed the first crew. Schirra\'s crew would test the life support, propulsion, guidance and control systems during this \"open-ended\" mission (meaning it would be extended as it passed each test). The duration was limited to 11 days, reduced from the original 14-day limit for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1.
The backup crew consisted of Stafford as commander, John W. Young as command module pilot, and Eugene A. Cernan as lunar module pilot. They became the prime crew of Apollo 10. Ronald E. Evans, John L. \'Jack\' Swigert, and Edward G. Givens were assigned to the support crew for the mission. Givens died in a car accident on June 6, 1967, and William R. Pogue was assigned as his replacement. Evans was involved in hardware testing at Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Swigert was the launch capsule communicator (CAPCOM) and worked on the mission\'s operational aspects. Pogue spent time modifying procedures. The support crew also filled in when the primary and backup crews were unavailable.
CAPCOMs, the person in Mission Control responsible for communicating with the spacecraft (then always an astronaut) were Evans, Pogue, Stafford, Swigert, Young and Cernan. Flight directors were Glynn Lunney, Gene Kranz and Gerry Griffin.
| 742 |
Apollo 7
| 1 |
1,773 |
## Preparation
According to Cunningham, Schirra originally had limited interest in making a third spaceflight, beginning to focus on his post-NASA career. Flying the first mission after the fire changed things: \"Wally Schirra was being pictured as the man chosen to rescue the manned space program. And that was a task worthy of Wally\'s interest.\" Eisele noted, \"coming on the heels of the fire, we knew the fate and future of the entire manned space program---not to mention our own skins---was riding on the success or failure of Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7.\"
Given the circumstances of the fire, the crew initially had little confidence in the staff at North American Aviation\'s plant at Downey, California, who built the Apollo command modules, and they were determined to follow their craft every step of the way through construction and testing. This interfered with training, but the simulators of the CM were not yet ready, and they knew it would be a long time until they launched. They spent long periods at Downey. Simulators were constructed at Houston\'s Manned Spacecraft Center and at KSC in Florida. Once these were available for use, the crew had difficulty finding enough time to do everything, even with the help of the backup and support crews; the crew often worked 12 or 14 hours per day. After the CM was completed and shipped to KSC, the focus of the crew\'s training shifted to Florida, though they went to Houston for planning and technical meetings. Rather than return to their Houston homes for the weekend, they often had to remain at KSC in order to participate in training or spacecraft testing. According to former astronaut Tom Jones in a 2018 article, Schirra, \"with indisputable evidence of the risks his crew would be taking, now had immense leverage with management at NASA and North American, and he used it. In conference rooms or on the spacecraft assembly line, Schirra got his way.\"
The Apollo 7 crew spent five hours in training for every hour they could expect to remain aboard if the mission went its full eleven days. In addition, they attended technical briefings and pilots\' meetings, and studied on their own. They undertook launch pad evacuation training, water egress training to exit the vehicle after splashdown, and learned to use firefighting equipment. They trained on the Apollo Guidance Computer at MIT. Each crew member spent 160 hours in CM simulations, in some of which Mission Control in Houston participated live. The \"plugs out\" test---the test that had killed the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 crew---was conducted with the prime crew in the spacecraft, but with the hatch open. One reason the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1 crew had died was because it was impossible to open the inward-opening hatch before the fire raced through the cabin; this was changed for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7.
Command modules similar to that used on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 were subjected to tests in the run-up to the mission. A three-astronaut crew (Joseph P. Kerwin, Vance D. Brand and Joe H. Engle) was inside a CM that was placed in a vacuum chamber at the Manned Spaceflight Center in Houston for eight days in June 1968 to test spacecraft systems. Another crew (James Lovell, Stuart Roosa and Charles M. Duke) spent 48 hours at sea aboard a CM lowered into the Gulf of Mexico from a naval vessel in April 1968, to test how systems would respond to seawater. Further tests were conducted the following month in a tank at Houston. Fires were set aboard a boilerplate CM using various atmospheric compositions and pressures. The results led to the decision to use 60 percent oxygen and 40 percent nitrogen within the CM at launch, which would be replaced with a lower pressure of pure oxygen within four hours, as providing adequate fire protection. Other boilerplate spacecraft were subjected to drops to test parachutes, and to simulate the likely damage if a CM came down on land. All results were satisfactory.
During the run-up to the mission, the Soviets sent uncrewed probes Zond 4 and Zond 5 (Zond 5 carried two tortoises) around the Moon, seeming to foreshadow a circumlunar crewed mission. NASA\'s Lunar Module (LM) was suffering delays, and Apollo Program Spacecraft Manager George Low proposed that if Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was a success, that Apollo 8 go to lunar orbit without a LM. The acceptance of Low\'s proposal raised the stakes for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. According to Stafford, Schirra \"clearly felt the full weight of the program riding on a successful mission and as a result became more openly critical and more sarcastic.\"
Throughout the Mercury and Gemini programs, McDonnell Aircraft engineer Guenter Wendt led the spacecraft launch pad teams, with ultimate responsibility for condition of the spacecraft at launch. He earned the astronauts\' respect and admiration, including Schirra\'s. However, the spacecraft contractor had changed from McDonnell (Mercury and Gemini) to North American (Apollo), so Wendt was not the pad leader for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1. So adamant was Schirra in his desire to have Wendt back as pad leader for his Apollo flight, that he got his boss Slayton to persuade North American management to hire Wendt away from McDonnell, and Schirra personally lobbied North American\'s launch operations manager to change Wendt\'s shift from midnight to day so he could be pad leader for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Wendt remained as pad leader for the entire Apollo program. When he departed the spacecraft area as the pad was evacuated prior to launch, after Cunningham said, \"I think Guenter\'s going\", Eisele responded \"Yes, I think Guenter went.\"
| 906 |
Apollo 7
| 2 |
1,773 |
## Hardware
### Spacecraft
The Apollo 7 spacecraft included Command and Service Module 101 (CSM-101), the first Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II CSM to be flown. The Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II craft had the capability of docking with a LM, though none was flown on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. The spacecraft also included the launch escape system and a spacecraft-lunar module adapter (SLA, numbered as SLA-5), though the latter included no LM and instead provided a mating structure between the SM and the S-IVB\'s Instrument Unit, with a structural stiffener substituted for the LM. The launch escape system was jettisoned after S-IVB ignition, while the SLA was left behind on the spent S-IVB when the CSM separated from it in orbit.
Following the Apollo 1 fire, the Block`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}II CSM was extensively redesigned---more than 1,800 changes were recommended, of which 1,300 were implemented for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7. Prominent among these was the new aluminum and fiberglass outward-opening hatch, which the crew could open in seven seconds from within, and the pad crew in ten seconds from outside. Other changes included replacement of aluminum tubing in the high-pressure oxygen system with stainless steel, replacement of flammable materials with non-flammable (including changing plastic switches for metal ones) and, for crew protection in the event of a fire, an emergency oxygen system to shield them from toxic fumes, as well as firefighting equipment.
After the Gemini 3 craft was dubbed *Molly Brown* by Grissom, NASA forbade naming spacecraft. Despite this prohibition, Schirra wanted to name his ship \"Phoenix,\" but NASA refused him permission. The first CM to be given a call sign other than the mission designation would be that of Apollo 9, which carried a LM that would separate from it and then re-dock, necessitating distinct call signs for the two vehicles.
### Launch vehicle {#launch_vehicle}
Since it flew in low Earth orbit and did not include a LM, Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was launched with the Saturn IB booster rather than the much larger and more powerful Saturn V. That Saturn IB was designated SA-205, and was the fifth Saturn IB to be flown---the earlier ones did not carry crews into space. It differed from its predecessors in that stronger propellant lines to the augmented spark igniter in the J-2 engines had been installed, so as to prevent a repetition of the early shutdown that had occurred on the uncrewed Apollo 6 flight; postflight analysis had shown that the propellant lines to the J-2 engines, also used in the Saturn V tested on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}6, had leaked.
The Saturn IB was a two-stage rocket, with the second stage an S-IVB similar to the third stage of the Saturn V, the rocket used by all later Apollo missions. The Saturn IB was used after the close of the Apollo Program to bring crews in Apollo CSMs to Skylab, and for the Apollo--Soyuz Test Project.
Apollo 7 was the only crewed Apollo mission to launch from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station\'s Launch Complex 34. All subsequent Apollo and Skylab spacecraft flights (including Apollo--Soyuz) were launched from Launch Complex 39 at the nearby Kennedy Space Center. Launch Complex 34 was declared redundant and decommissioned in 1969, making Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 the last human spaceflight mission to launch from the Cape Air Force Station in the 20th century.
| 533 |
Apollo 7
| 3 |
1,773 |
## Mission highlights {#mission_highlights}
The main purposes of the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 flight were to show that the Block II CM would be habitable and reliable over the length of time required for a lunar mission, to show that the service propulsion system (SPS, the spacecraft\'s main engine) and the CM\'s guidance systems could perform a rendezvous in orbit, and later make a precision reentry and splashdown. In addition, there were a number of specific objectives, including evaluating the communications systems and the accuracy of onboard systems such as the propellant tank gauges. Many of the activities aimed at gathering these data were scheduled for early in the mission, so that if the mission was terminated prematurely, they would already have been completed, allowing for fixes to be made prior to the next Apollo flight.
### Launch and testing {#launch_and_testing}
Apollo 7, the first crewed American space flight in 22 months, launched from Launch Complex 34 at 11:02:45`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}am EDT (15:02:45`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}UTC) on Friday, October 11, 1968.
During the countdown, the wind was blowing in from the east. Launching under these weather conditions was in violation of safety rules, since in the event of a launch vehicle malfunction and abort, the CM might be blown back over land instead of making the usual water landing. Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was equipped with the old Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}1-style crew couches, which provided less protection than later ones. Schirra later related that he felt the launch should have been scrubbed, but managers waived the rule and he yielded under pressure.
Liftoff proceeded flawlessly; the Saturn IB performed well on its first crewed launch and there were no significant anomalies during the boost phase. The astronauts described it as very smooth. The ascent made the 45-year-old Schirra the oldest person to that point to enter space, and, as it proved, the only astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions.
Within the first three hours of flight, the astronauts performed two actions which simulated what would be required on a lunar mission. First, they maneuvered the craft with the S-IVB still attached, as would be required for the burn that would take lunar missions to the Moon. Then, after separation from the S-IVB, Schirra turned the CSM around and approached a docking target painted on the S-IVB, simulating the docking maneuver with the lunar module on Moon-bound missions prior to extracting the combined craft. Cunningham reported that the hinged SLA panels on the S-IVB had not fully opened, which CAPCOM Tom Stafford likened to the \"angry alligator\" from his Gemini 9A flight. Partially open panels would have presented a collision hazard on flights with an LM, so on subsequent missions the SLA panels were jettisoned after the CSM had separated. After station keeping with the S-IVB for 20 minutes, Schirra let it drift away, putting 76 mi between the CSM and it in preparation for the following day\'s rendezvous attempt.
The astronauts also enjoyed a hot lunch, the first hot meal prepared on an American spacecraft. Schirra had brought instant coffee along over the opposition of NASA doctors, who argued it added nothing nutritionally. Five hours after launch, he reported having, and enjoying, his first plastic bag full of coffee.
The purpose of the rendezvous was to demonstrate the CSM\'s ability to match orbits with and rescue a LM after an aborted lunar landing attempt, or following liftoff from the lunar surface. This was to occur on the second day; but by the end of the first, Schirra had reported he had a cold, and, despite Slayton coming on the loop to argue in favor, declined Mission Control\'s request that the crew power up and test the onboard television camera prior to the rendezvous, citing the cold, that the crew had not eaten, and that there was already a very full schedule.
The rendezvous was complicated by the fact that the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 spacecraft lacked a rendezvous radar, something the Moon-bound missions would have. The SPS, the engine that would be needed to send later Apollo CSMs into and out of lunar orbit, had been fired only on a test stand. Although the astronauts were confident it would work, they were concerned it might fire in an unexpected manner, necessitating an early end to the mission. The burns would be computed from the ground but the final work in maneuvering up to the S-IVB would require Eisele to use the telescope and sextant to compute the final burns, with Schirra applying the ship\'s reaction control system (RCS) thrusters. Eisele was startled by the violent jolt caused by activating the SPS. The thrust caused Schirra to yell, \"Yabba dabba doo!\" in reference to *The Flintstones* cartoon. Schirra eased the craft close to the S-IVB, which was tumbling out of control, successfully completing the rendezvous.
The first television broadcast took place on October 14. It began with a view of a card reading \"From the Lovely Apollo Room high atop everything\", recalling tag lines used by band leaders on 1930s radio broadcasts. Cunningham served as camera operator with Eisele as emcee. During the seven-minute broadcast, the crew showed off the spacecraft and gave the audience views of the southern United States. Before the close, Schirra held another sign, \"Keep those cards and letters coming in folks\", another old-time radio tag line that had been used recently by Dean Martin. This was the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft (Gordon Cooper had transmitted slow-scan television pictures from *Faith`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7* in 1963, but the pictures were of poor quality and were never broadcast). According to Jones, \"these apparently amiable astronauts delivered to NASA a solid public relations coup.\" Daily television broadcasts of about 10 minutes each followed, during which the crew held up more signs and educated their audience about spaceflight; after the return to Earth, they were awarded a special Emmy for the telecasts.
Later on October 14, the craft\'s onboard radar receiver was able to lock onto a ground-based transmitter, again showing a CSM in lunar orbit could keep contact with a LM returning from the Moon\'s surface. Throughout the remainder of the mission, the crew continued to run tests on the CSM, including of the propulsion, navigation, environmental, electrical and thermal control systems. All checked out well; according to authors Francis French and Colin Burgess, \"The redesigned Apollo spacecraft was better than anyone had dared to hope.\" Eisele found that navigation was not as easy as anticipated; he found it difficult to use Earth\'s horizon in sighting stars due to the fuzziness of the atmosphere, and water dumps made it difficult to discern which glistening points were stars and which ice particles. By the end of the mission, the SPS engine had been fired eight times without any problems.
One difficulty that was encountered was with the sleep schedule, which called for one crew member to remain awake at all times; Eisele was to remain awake while the others slept, and sleep during part of the time the others were awake. This did not work well, as it was hard for crew members to work without making a disturbance. Cunningham later remembered waking up to find Eisele dozing.
| 1,185 |
Apollo 7
| 4 |
1,773 |
## Mission highlights {#mission_highlights}
### Conflict and splashdown {#conflict_and_splashdown}
Schirra was angered by NASA managers allowing the launch to proceed despite the winds, saying \"The mission pushed us to the wall in terms of risk.\" Jones said, \"This prelaunch dispute was the prelude to a tug of war over command decisions for the rest of the mission.\" Lack of sleep and Schirra\'s cold probably contributed to the conflict between the astronauts and Mission Control that surfaced from time to time during the flight.
The testing of the television resulted in a disagreement between the crew and Houston. Schirra stated at the time, \"You\'ve added two burns to this flight schedule, and you\'ve added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I can tell you at this point, TV will be delayed without any further discussion until after the rendezvous.\" Schirra later wrote, \"we\'d resist anything that interfered with our main mission objectives. On this particular Saturday morning a TV program clearly interfered.\" Eisele agreed in his memoirs, \"We were preoccupied with preparations for that critical exercise and didn\'t want to divert our attention with what seemed to be trivialities at the time.`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... Evidently the earth people felt differently; there was a real stink about the hotheaded, recalcitrant Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew who wouldn\'t take orders.\" French and Burgess wrote, \"When this point is considered objectively---that in a front-loaded mission the rendezvous, alignment, and engine tests should be done before television shows---it is hard to argue with him \[Schirra\].\" Although Slayton gave in to Schirra, the commander\'s attitude surprised flight controllers.
On Day 8, after being asked to follow a new procedure passed up from the ground that caused the computer to freeze, Eisele radioed, \"We didn\'t get the results that you were after. We didn\'t get a damn thing, in fact`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... you bet your ass`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... as far as we\'re concerned, somebody down there screwed up royally when he laid that one on us.\" Schirra later stated his belief that this was the one main occasion when Eisele upset Mission Control. The next day saw more conflict, with Schirra telling Mission Control after having to make repeated firings of the RCS system to keep the spacecraft stable during a test, \"I wish you would find out the idiot\'s name who thought up this test. I want to find out, and I want to talk to him personally when I get back down.\" Eisele joined in, \"While you are at it, find out who dreamed up \'P22 horizon test\'; that is a beauty also.\"
A further source of tension between Mission Control and the crew was that Schirra repeatedly expressed the view that the reentry should be conducted with their helmets off. He perceived a risk that their eardrums might burst due to the sinus pressure from their colds, and they wanted to be able to pinch their noses and blow to equalize the pressure as it increased during reentry. This would have been impossible wearing the helmets. Over several days, Schirra refused advice from the ground that the helmets should be worn, stating it was his prerogative as commander to decide this, though Slayton warned him he would have to answer for it after the flight. Schirra stated in 1994, \"In this case I had a cold, and I\'d had enough discussion with the ground, and I didn\'t have much more time to talk about whether we would put the helmet on or off. I said, essentially, I\'m on board, I\'m commanding. They could wear all the black armbands they wanted if I was lost or if I lost my hearing. But I had the responsibility for getting through the mission.\" No helmets were worn during the entry. Director of Flight Operations Christopher C. Kraft demanded an explanation for what he believed was Schirra\'s insubordination from the CAPCOM, Stafford. Kraft later said, \"Schirra was exercising his commander's right to have the last word, and that was that.\"
Apollo 7 splashed down without incident at 11:11:48 UTC on October 22, 1968, 200 nmi SSW of Bermuda and 7 nmi north of the recovery ship USS *Essex*. The mission\'s duration was 10`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}days, 20`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}hours, 9`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}minutes and 3`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}seconds.
| 697 |
Apollo 7
| 5 |
1,773 |
## Assessment and aftermath {#assessment_and_aftermath}
After the mission, NASA awarded Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham its Exceptional Service Medal in recognition of their success. On November 2, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson held a ceremony at the LBJ Ranch in Johnson City, Texas, to present the astronauts with the medals. He also presented NASA\'s highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, to recently retired NASA administrator James E. Webb, for his \"outstanding leadership of America\'s space program\" since the beginning of Apollo. Johnson also invited the crew to the White House, and they went there in December 1968.
Despite the difficulties between the crew and Mission Control, the mission successfully met its objectives to verify the Apollo command and service module\'s flightworthiness, allowing Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8\'s flight to the Moon to proceed just two months later. John T. McQuiston wrote in *The New York Times* after Eisele\'s death in 1987 that Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7\'s success brought renewed confidence to NASA\'s space program. According to Jones, \"Three weeks after the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew returned, NASA administrator Thomas Paine green-lighted Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8 to launch in late December and orbit the Moon. Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 had delivered NASA from its trial by fire---it was the first small step down a path that would lead another crew, nine months later, to the Sea of Tranquility.\"
General Sam Phillips, the Apollo Program Manager, said at the time, \"Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 goes into my book as a perfect mission. We accomplished 101 percent of our objectives.\" Kraft wrote, \"Schirra and his crew did it all---or at least all of it that counted`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... \[T\]hey proved to everyone\'s satisfaction that the SPS engine was one of the most reliable we\'d ever sent into space. They operated the Command and Service Modules with true professionalism.\" Eisele wrote, \"We were insolent, high-handed, and Machiavellian at times. Call it paranoia, call it smart---it got the job done. We had a great flight.\" Kranz stated in 1998, \"we all look back now with a longer perspective. Schirra really wasn\'t on us as bad as it seemed at the time.`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... Bottom line was, even with a grumpy commander, we got the job done as a team.\"
None of the Apollo 7 crew members flew in space again. According to Jim Lovell, \"Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 was a very successful flight---they did an excellent job---but it was a very contentious flight. They all teed off the ground people quite considerably, and I think that kind of put a stop on future flights \[for them\].\" Schirra had announced, before the flight, his retirement from NASA and the Navy, effective July 1, 1969. The other two crew members had their spaceflight careers stunted by their involvement in Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7; by some accounts, Kraft told Slayton he was unwilling to work in future with any member of the crew. Cunningham heard the rumors that Kraft had said this and confronted him in early 1969; Kraft denied making the statement \"but his reaction wasn\'t exactly outraged innocence.\" Eisele\'s career may also have been affected by becoming the first active astronaut to divorce, followed by a quick remarriage, and an indifferent performance as backup CMP for Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}10. He resigned from the Astronaut Office in 1970 though he remained with NASA at the Langley Research Center in Virginia until 1972, when he was eligible for retirement. Cunningham was made the leader of the Astronaut Office\'s Skylab division. He related that he was informally offered command of the first Skylab crew, but when this instead went to Apollo 12 commander Pete Conrad, with Cunningham offered the position of backup commander, he resigned as an astronaut in 1971.
Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were the only crew, of all the Apollo, Skylab and Apollo--Soyuz missions, who had not been awarded the Distinguished Service Medal immediately following their missions (though Schirra had received the medal twice before, for his Mercury and Gemini missions). Therefore, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin decided to belatedly award the medals to the crew in October 2008, \"\[f\]or exemplary performance in meeting all the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 mission objectives and more on the first crewed Apollo mission, paving the way for the first flight to the Moon on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}8 and the first crewed lunar landing on Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}11.\" Only Cunningham was still alive at the time as Eisele had died in 1987 and Schirra in 2007. Eisele\'s widow accepted his medal, and Apollo 8 crew member Bill Anders accepted Schirra\'s. Other Apollo astronauts, including Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Alan Bean, were present at the award ceremony. Kraft, who had been in conflict with the crew during the mission, sent a conciliatory video message of congratulations, saying: \"We gave you a hard time once but you certainly survived that and have done extremely well since`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}\... I am frankly, very proud to call you a friend.\"
## Mission insignia {#mission_insignia}
The insignia for the flight shows a command and service module with its SPS engine firing, the trail from that fire encircling a globe and extending past the edges of the patch symbolizing the Earth-orbital nature of the mission. The Roman numeral`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}VII appears in the South Pacific Ocean and the crew\'s names appear on a wide black arc at the bottom. The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.
| 860 |
Apollo 7
| 6 |
1,773 |
## Spacecraft location {#spacecraft_location}
In January 1969, the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 command module was displayed on the NASA float in the inauguration parade of President Richard M. Nixon. The Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 astronauts rode in an open car. After being transferred to the Smithsonian Institution in 1970, the spacecraft was loaned to the National Museum of Science and Technology, in Ottawa, Ontario. It was returned to the United States in 2004. Currently, the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 CM is on loan to the Frontiers of Flight Museum at Love Field in Dallas, Texas.
## Depiction in media {#depiction_in_media}
On November 6, 1968, comedian Bob Hope broadcast one of his variety television specials from NASA\'s Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston to honor the Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 crew. Barbara Eden, star of the popular comedy series *I Dream of Jeannie*, which featured fictional astronauts among its regular characters, appeared with Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham.
Schirra parlayed the head cold he contracted during Apollo`{{spaces}}`{=mediawiki}7 into a television advertising contract as a spokesman for Actifed, an over-the-counter version of the medicine he took in space.
The Apollo 7 mission is dramatized in the 1998 miniseries *From the Earth to the Moon* episode \"We Have Cleared the Tower\", with Mark Harmon as Schirra, John Mese as Eisele, Fredric Lehne as Cunningham and Nick Searcy as Slayton.
## Gallery
<File:Apollo> 7 photographed in flight by ALOTS (68-HC-641).jpg\|Apollo 7 in flight <File:Saturn> IB Second Stage with open LM adapter.jpg\|Distant view of the S-IVB stage <File:AS07-11-2000> (21355660044).jpg\|View of the Sinai Peninsula from Apollo 7 <File:Apollo> 7 Command Module Museum
| 252 |
Apollo 7
| 7 |
1,777 | 0 |
April 2
| 0 |
|
1,781 | 0 |
August 28
| 0 |
|
1,789 |
**Apuleius** (`{{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|p|j|ʊ|ˈ|l|iː|ə|s}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|APP|yuu|LEE|əs}}`{=mediawiki}), also called **Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis** (c. 124 -- after 170), was a Numidian Latin-language prose writer, Platonist philosopher and rhetorician. He was born in the Roman province of Numidia, in the Berber city of Madauros, modern-day M\'Daourouch, Algeria. He studied Platonism in Athens, travelled to Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt, and was an initiate in several cults or mysteries. The most famous incident in his life was when he was accused of using magic to gain the attentions (and fortune) of a wealthy widow. He declaimed and then distributed his own defense before the proconsul and a court of magistrates convened in Sabratha, near Oea (modern Tripoli, Libya). This is known as the *Apologia*.
His most famous work is his bawdy picaresque novel the *Metamorphoses*, otherwise known as *The Golden Ass*. It is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It relates the adventures of its protagonist, Lucius, who experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into a donkey. Lucius goes through various adventures before he is turned back into a human being by the goddess Isis.
## Life
Apuleius was born in Madauros, a *colonia* in Numidia on the North African coast bordering Gaetulia, and he described himself as \"half-Numidian half-Gaetulian.\" Madaurus was the same *colonia* where Augustine of Hippo later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. As to his first name, no *praenomen* is given in any ancient source; late-medieval manuscripts began the tradition of calling him *Lucius* from the name of the hero of his novel. Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (*Apology*) and his work *Florida*, which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches.
His father was a municipal magistrate (*duumvir*) who bequeathed at his death the sum of nearly two million sesterces to his two sons. Apuleius studied with a master at Carthage (where he later settled) and later at Athens, where he studied Platonist philosophy among other subjects. He subsequently went to Rome to study Latin rhetoric and, most likely, to speak in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in Asia Minor and Egypt, studying philosophy and religion, burning up his inheritance while doing so.
Apuleius was an initiate in several Greco-Roman mysteries, including the Dionysian Mysteries.`{{refn |group=note|As he proudly claims in his ''Apologia''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Winter |first=Thomas Nelson |year=2006 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=classicsfacpub |title=Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius |journal=Faculty Publications, Classics and Religious Studies Department |issue=4}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} He was a priest of Asclepius and, according to Augustine, *sacerdos provinciae Africae* (i.e., priest of the province of Carthage).
Not long after his return home he set out upon a new journey to Alexandria. On his way there he was taken ill at the town of Oea (modern-day Tripoli) and was hospitably received into the house of Sicinius Pontianus, with whom he had been friends when he had studied in Athens. The mother of Pontianus, Pudentilla, was a very rich widow. With her son\'s consent -- indeed encouragement -- Apuleius agreed to marry her. Meanwhile, Pontianus himself married the daughter of one Herennius Rufinus; he, indignant that Pudentilla\'s wealth should pass out of the family, instigated his son-in-law, together with a younger brother, Sicinius Pudens, a mere boy, and their paternal uncle, Sicinius Aemilianus, to join him in impeaching Apuleius upon the charge that he had gained the affections of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells. The case was heard at Sabratha, near Tripoli, c. 158 AD, before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa. The accusation itself seems to have been ridiculous, and the spirited and triumphant defence spoken by Apuleius is still extant. This is known as the *Apologia (A Discourse on Magic)*.
Apuleius accused an extravagant personal enemy of turning his house into a brothel and prostituting his wife.
Of his subsequent career, we know little. Judging from the many works of which he was author, he must have devoted himself diligently to literature. He occasionally gave speeches in public to great reception; he had the charge of exhibiting gladiatorial shows and wild beast events in the province, and statues were erected in his honour by the senate of Carthage and of other senates.
The date, place and circumstances of Apuleius\' death are not known. There is no record of his activities after 170, a fact which has led some people to believe that he must have died about then (say in 171), although other scholars feel that he may still have been alive in 180 or even 190.
| 774 |
Apuleius
| 0 |
1,789 |
## Works
### *The Golden Ass* {#the_golden_ass}
*The Golden Ass* (*Asinus Aureus*) or *Metamorphoses* is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It relates the adventures of one Lucius, who introduces himself as related to the famous philosophers Plutarch and Sextus of Chaeronea. Lucius experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into an ass. In this guise, he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way. Within this frame story are found many digressions, the longest among them being the well-known tale of Cupid and Psyche. This story is a rare instance of a fairy tale preserved in an ancient literary text.
The *Metamorphoses* ends with the (once again human) hero, Lucius, eager to be initiated into the mystery cult of Isis; he abstains from forbidden foods, bathes, and purifies himself. He is introduced to the *Navigium Isidis*. Then the secrets of the cult\'s books are explained to him, and further secrets are revealed before he goes through the process of initiation, which involves a trial by the elements on a journey to the underworld. Lucius is then asked to seek initiation into the cult of Osiris in Rome, and eventually is initiated into the *pastophoroi* -- a group of priests that serves Isis and Osiris.
### *Apologia*
(*Apulei Platonici pro Se de Magia*) is the version of the defence presented in Sabratha, in 158--159, before the proconsul Claudius Maximus, by Apuleius accused of the crime of magic. Between the traditional exordium and peroratio, the argumentation is divided into three sections:
1. Refutation of the accusations levelled against his private life. He demonstrates that by marrying Pudentilla he had no interested motive and that he carries it away, intellectually and morally, on his opponents.
2. Attempt to prove that his so-called \"magical operations\" were in fact indispensable scientific experiments for an imitator of Aristotle and Hippocrates, or the religious acts of a Roman Platonist.
3. A recount of the events that have occurred in Oea since his arrival and pulverize the arguments against him.
The main interest of the *Apologia* is historical, as it offers substantial information about its author, magic and life in Africa in the second century.
### Other
His other works are:
- *Florida*. A compilation of twenty-three extracts from his various speeches and lectures.
- *De Platone et dogmate eius (On Plato and His Doctrine)*. An outline in two books of Plato\'s physics and ethics, preceded by a life of Plato
- *`{{visible anchor|De Deo Socratis}}`{=mediawiki} (On the God of Socrates)*. A work on the existence and nature of daemons, the intermediaries between gods and humans. This treatise was attacked by Augustine of Hippo in *The City of God* (Books VIII to X), while Lactantius reserved it for short-lived creatures. *De Deo Socratis* contains a passage comparing gods and kings which is the first recorded occurrence of the proverb \"**familiarity breeds contempt**\":`{{Blockquote|''parit enim conversatio contemptum, raritas conciliat admirationem''<br />(familiarity breeds contempt, rarity brings admiration)|sign=|source=}}`{=mediawiki}
- *On the Universe*. This Latin translation of Pseudo-Aristotle\'s work *De Mundo* is probably by Apuleius.
Apuleius wrote many other works which have not survived. He wrote works of poetry and fiction, as well as technical treatises on politics, dendrology, agriculture, medicine, natural history, astronomy, music, and arithmetic, and he translated Plato\'s *Phaedo*.
### Spurious
Extant works wrongly attributed to Apuleius include:
- *Peri Hermeneias* (*On Interpretation*). A brief Latin version of a guide to Aristotelian logic.
- *Asclepius*. A Latin paraphrase of a lost Greek dialogue (*The Perfect Discourse*) featuring Asclepius and Hermes Trismegistus.
- *Herbarium Apuleii Platonici* by Pseudo-Apuleius.
| 600 |
Apuleius
| 1 |
1,789 |
## Apuleian Sphere {#apuleian_sphere}
The Apuleian Sphere described in *Petosiris to Nechepso*, also known as \"Columcille\'s Circle\" or \"Petosiris\' Circle\", is a magical prognosticating device for predicting the survival of a patient
| 32 |
Apuleius
| 2 |
1,790 |
**Alexander Selkirk** (1676`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}13 December 1721) was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent four years and four months as a castaway (1704--1709) after being marooned by his captain, initially at his request, on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean.
Selkirk was an unruly youth and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on *Cinque Ports*, captained by Thomas Stradling, under the overall command of William Dampier. Stradling\'s ship stopped to resupply at the uninhabited Juan Fernández Islands, west of South America, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there. Selkirk\'s suspicions were soon justified, as *Cinque Ports* foundered near Malpelo Island 400 km (250 mi) from the coast of what is now Colombia.
By the time he was eventually rescued by the privateer Woodes Rogers, who was accompanied by Dampier, Selkirk had become adept at hunting and making use of the resources that he found on the island. His story of survival was widely publicized after his return and became one of the reputed sources of inspiration for the fictional character Robinson Crusoe of the English writer Daniel Defoe.
## Early life and privateering {#early_life_and_privateering}
Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676. In his youth, he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. He was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693 for his \"indecent conduct in church\", but he \"did not appear, being gone to sea\". He was back at Largo in 1701 when he again came to the attention of church authorities for assaulting his brothers.
Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering. In 1703, he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean, setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September. They carried letters of marque from the Lord High Admiral authorizing their armed merchant ships to attack foreign enemies as the War of the Spanish Succession was then going on between England and Spain. Dampier was captain of *St George* and Selkirk served on *Cinque Ports*, *St George*{{\'}}s companion ship, as sailing master under Captain Thomas Stradling. By this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea.
In February 1704, following a stormy passage around Cape Horn, the privateers fought a long battle with a well-armed French vessel, *St Joseph*, only to have it escape to warn its Spanish allies of their arrival in the Pacific. A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their landing party was ambushed. The easy capture of *Asunción*, a heavily laden merchantman, revived the men\'s hopes of plunder, and Selkirk was put in charge of the prize ship. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar, and flour, then abruptly set the ship free, arguing that the gain was not worth the effort. In May 1704, Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own.
| 507 |
Alexander Selkirk
| 0 |
1,790 |
## Castaway
In September 1704, after parting ways with Dampier, Captain Stradling brought *Cinque Ports* to an island known to the Spanish as Más a Tierra located in the uninhabited Juan Fernández archipelago 670 km off the coast of Chile for a mid-expedition restocking of fresh water and supplies.
Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel and wanted to make the necessary repairs before going any further. He declared that he would rather stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship. Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, a Bible, bedding and some clothes. Selkirk immediately regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board.
*Cinque Ports* later foundered off the coast of what is now Colombia. Stradling and \"six or seven of his Men\" survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. They were taken to Lima where they endured a harsh imprisonment. Stradling attempted escape after stealing a canoe in Lima, but was recaptured and punished. The Spanish governor threatened to send all the survivors to the mines. The survivors ultimately returned to England after four years of imprisonment.
### Life on the island {#life_on_the_island}
At first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Más a Tierra. During this time, he ate spiny lobsters and scanned the ocean daily for rescue, suffering all the while from loneliness, misery, and remorse. Hordes of raucous sea lions, gathering on the beach for the mating season, eventually drove him to the island\'s interior. Once inland, his way of life took a turn for the better. More foods were available there: feral goats---introduced by earlier sailors---provided him with meat and milk, while wild turnips, the leaves of the indigenous cabbage tree and dried *Schinus* fruits (pink peppercorns) offered him variety and spice. Rats would attack him at night, but he was able to sleep soundly and in safety by domesticating and living near feral cats.
Selkirk proved resourceful in using materials that he found on the island: he forged a new knife out of barrel hoops left on the beach; built two huts out of pepper trees, one of which he used for cooking and the other for sleeping; and employed his musket to hunt goats and his knife to clean their carcasses. As his gunpowder dwindled, he had to chase prey on foot. During one such chase, he was badly injured when he tumbled from a cliff, lying helpless and unable to move for about a day. His prey had cushioned his fall, probably sparing him a broken back.
Childhood lessons learned from his father, a tanner, now served him well. For example, when his clothes wore out, he made new ones from hair-covered goatskins using a nail for sewing. As his shoes became unusable, he did not need to replace them, since his toughened, calloused feet made protection unnecessary. He sang psalms and read from the Bible, finding it a comfort in his situation and a prop for his English.
During his sojourn on the island, two vessels came to anchor. Unfortunately for Selkirk, both were Spanish. Being British and a privateer, he would have faced a grim fate if captured and therefore did his best to hide. Once, he was spotted and chased by a group of Spanish sailors from one of the ships. His pursuers urinated beneath the tree in which he was hiding but failed to notice him. The would-be captors then gave up and sailed away.
### Rescue
Selkirk\'s long-awaited deliverance came on 2 February 1709 by way of *Duke*, a privateering ship piloted by William Dampier, and its sailing companion *Duchess*. Thomas Dover led the landing party that met Selkirk. After four years and four months without human company, Selkirk was almost incoherent with joy. The *Duke*{{\'s}} captain and leader of the expedition was Woodes Rogers, who wryly referred to Selkirk as the governor of the island. The agile castaway caught two or three goats a day and helped restore the health of Rogers\' men, who had developed scurvy.
Captain Rogers was impressed by Selkirk\'s physical vigour, but also by the peace of mind that he had attained while living on the island, observing: \"One may see that solitude and retirement from the world is not such an insufferable state of life as most men imagine, especially when people are fairly called or thrown into it unavoidably, as this man was.\" He made Selkirk *Duke*{{\'}}s second mate, later giving him command of one of their prize ships, *Increase*, before it was ransomed by the Spanish.
Selkirk returned to privateering with a vengeance. At Guayaquil in present-day Ecuador, he led a boat crew up the Guayas River where several wealthy Spanish ladies had fled, and looted the gold and jewels they had hidden inside their clothing. His part in the hunt for treasure galleons along the coast of Mexico resulted in the capture of *Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño*, renamed *Bachelor*, on which he served as sailing master under Captain Dover to the Dutch East Indies. Selkirk completed the around-the-world voyage by the Cape of Good Hope as the sailing master of *Duke*, arriving at the Downs off the English coast on 1 October 1711. He had been away for eight years.
| 898 |
Alexander Selkirk
| 1 |
1,790 |
## Later life and influence {#later_life_and_influence}
thumb\|left\|upright=0.65\|alt=Engraving of Robinson Crusoe standing on the shore of an island, dressed in hair-covered goatskin clothing\|An illustration of Crusoe in goatskin clothing shows the influence of Selkirk Selkirk\'s experience as a castaway aroused a great deal of attention in Britain. His fellow crewman Edward Cooke mentioned Selkirk\'s ordeal in a book chronicling their privateering expedition, *A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World* (1712). A more detailed recounting was published by the expedition\'s leader, Rogers, within months. The following year, prominent essayist Richard Steele wrote an article about him for *The Englishman* newspaper. Selkirk appeared set to enjoy a life of ease and celebrity, claiming his share of *Duke*{{\'s}} plundered wealth---about £800 (equivalent to £`{{Inflation|UK|800|1713|r=-4|fmt=c}}`{=mediawiki} today). However, legal disputes made the amount of any payment uncertain.
After a few months in London, he began to seem more like his former self again. However, he still missed his secluded and solitary moments, remarking, \"I am now worth eight hundred pounds, but shall never be as *happy* as when I was not worth a farthing.\" In September 1713, he was charged with assaulting a shipwright in Bristol and might have been kept in confinement for two years. He returned to Lower Largo, where he met Sophia Bruce, a young dairymaid. They eloped to London early and married on 4 March 1717. He was soon off to sea again, having enlisted in the Royal Navy. While on a visit to Plymouth in 1720, he married a widowed innkeeper named Frances Candis. He was serving as an officer on board `{{HMS|Weymouth|1693|6}}`{=mediawiki}, engaged in an anti-piracy patrol off the west coast of Africa. The ship arrived near the mouth of the River Gambia in March 1721 and lingered due to damage from bad weather. The locals took several crew hostage and ransomed them for \"gold and food.\" As the ship sailed down the coast of West Africa, men went into the forests to cut wood and began to contract yellow fever from the swarms of mosquitoes, and perhaps typhoid. Four died in June and, by September, \"so many men were dying a makeshift hospital was erected on shore\" near Cape Coast Castle. Selkirk became sick in November with the same symptoms as his crewmates. He died on 13 December 1721 along with shipmate William King, and both were buried at sea; three more died the following day.
When Daniel Defoe published *The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe* (1719), few readers could have missed the resemblance to Selkirk. An illustration on the first page of the novel shows \"a rather melancholy-looking man standing on the shore of an island, gazing inland\", in the words of the modern explorer Tim Severin. He is dressed in the familiar hirsute goatskins, his feet and shins bare. Yet Crusoe\'s island is located not in the mid-latitudes of the South Pacific but 4300 km away in the Caribbean, where the furry attire would hardly be comfortable in the tropical heat. This incongruity supports the popular belief that Selkirk was a model for the fictional character, but most literary scholars now accept that he was \"just one of many survival narratives that Defoe knew about\".
| 533 |
Alexander Selkirk
| 2 |
1,790 |
## In other literary works {#in_other_literary_works}
This is also a reference to William Cowper\'s poem. \| Poet Patrick Kavanagh likens his loneliness on the road to that of Selkirk, in his poem \"Inniskeen Road: July Evening\": \| In \"Etiquette\", one of W. S. Gilbert\'s *Bab Ballads*, Selkirk is used as a model for the English castaways: \| Joshua Slocum mentions Selkirk in the book *Sailing Alone Around the World* (1900). During his visit to the Juan Fernández Islands, Slocum runs across a marker commemorating Selkirk\'s stay.\| Diana Souhami draws on testimony from Selkirk and many others in her *Selkirk\'s Island* (2001), from a journey to rescue to arrival home and inspiration for the prolific Daniel Defoe. \| In Allan Cole and Chris Bunch\'s Sten science fiction series, Book Two, *The Wolf Worlds*, the Scottish character Alex bemoans their predicament after crash landing: {{\"\'}}A slack way for a mon,\' Alex mourned to himself. \'Ah, didnae ken Ah\'d ever been Alex Selkirk. {{\'\"}}}}
## In film {#in_film}
*Selkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe* is a stop motion film by Walter Tournier based on Selkirk\'s life. It premièred simultaneously in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay on 2 February 2012, distributed by The Walt Disney Company. It was the first full-length animated feature to be produced in Uruguay.
## Commemoration
Selkirk has been memorialized in his Scottish birthplace. Lord Aberdeen delivered a speech on 11 December 1885, after which his wife, Lady Aberdeen, unveiled a bronze statue and plaque in memory of Selkirk outside a house on the site of his original home on the Main Street of Lower Largo. David Gillies of Cardy House, Lower Largo, a descendant of the Selkirks, donated the statue created by Thomas Stuart Burnett.
The Scotsman is also remembered in his former island home. In 1869 the crew of `{{HMS|Topaze|1858|6}}`{=mediawiki} placed a bronze tablet at a spot called Selkirk\'s Lookout on a mountain of Más a Tierra, Juan Fernández Islands, to mark his stay. On 1 January 1966 Chilean president Eduardo Frei Montalva renamed Más a Tierra Robinson Crusoe Island after Defoe\'s fictional character to attract tourists. The largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, known as Más Afuera, became Alejandro Selkirk Island, although Selkirk probably never saw that island since it is located 180 km to the west.
## Archaeological findings {#archaeological_findings}
An archaeological expedition to the Juan Fernández Islands in February 2005 found part of a nautical instrument that likely belonged to Selkirk. It was \"a fragment of copper alloy identified as being from a pair of navigational dividers\" dating from the early 18th (or late 17th) century. Selkirk is the only person known to have been on the island at that time who is likely to have had dividers and was even said by Rogers to have had such instruments in his possession. The artifact was discovered while excavating a site not far from Selkirk\'s Lookout where the famous castaway is believed to have lived. In 1825, during John Howell\'s research of Alexander Selkirk\'s biography, his \"*flip-can*\" was in the possession of his great-grand-nephew John Selkirk, and Alexander\'s musket was \"in the possession of Major Lumsden of Lathallan
| 520 |
Alexander Selkirk
| 3 |
1,802 |
**Ægir** (anglicised as **Aegir**; Old Norse \'sea\'), **Hlér** (Old Norse \'sea\'), or **Gymir** (Old Norse less clearly \'sea, engulfer\'), is a jötunn and a personification of the sea in Norse mythology. In the Old Norse record, Ægir hosts the gods in his halls and is associated with brewing ale. Ægir is attested as married to a goddess, Rán, who also personifies the sea, and together the two produced daughters who personify waves, the Nine Daughters of Ægir and Rán, and Ægir\'s son is Snær, personified snow. Ægir may also be the father of the beautiful jötunn Gerðr, wife of the god Freyr, or these may be two separate figures who share the same name (see below and Gymir (father of Gerðr)).
One of Ægir\'s names, *Hlér*, is the namesake of the island Læsø (Old Norse *Hlésey* \'Hlér\'s island\') and perhaps also Lejre in Denmark. Scholars have long analyzed Ægir\'s role in the Old Norse corpus, and the concept of the figure has had some influence in modern popular culture.
## Names
The Old Norse name *Ægir* (\'sea\') may stem from a Proto-Germanic form *\*āg^w^i-jaz* (\'that of the river/water\'), itself a derivative of the stem *\*ahwō-* (\'river\'; cf. Gothic **aƕa** \'body of water, river\', Old English *ēa* \'stream\', Old High German *aha* \'river\'). Richard Cleasby and Guðbrandur Vigfússon saw his name as deriving from an ancient Indo-European root. Linguist Guus Kroonen argues that the Germanic stem *\*ahwō-* is probably of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) origin, as it may be cognate with Latin *aqua* (via a common form *\*h₂ekʷ-eh₂-*), and ultimately descend from the PIE root *\*h₂ep*- (\'water\'; cf. Sanskrit *áp-* \'water\', Tocharian *āp-* \'water, river\'). Linguist Michiel de Vaan notes that the connection between Proto-Germanic \**ahwō*- and Old Norse *Ægir* remains uncertain, and that \**ahwō-* and *aqua*, if cognates, may also be loanwords from a non-Indo-European language.
The name *Ægir* is identical to a noun for \'sea\' in skaldic poetry, itself a base word in many kennings. For instance, a ship is described as \"Ægir\'s horse\" and the waves as the \"daughters of Ægir\".
Poetic kennings in both *Hversu Noregr byggðist* (How Norway Was Settled) and *Skáldskaparmál* (The Language of Poetry) treat Ægir and the sea-jötunn Hlér, who lives on the Hlésey (\'Hlér island\', modern Læsø), as the same figure.
The meaning of the Old Norse name *Gymir* is unclear. Proposed translations include \'the earthly\' (from Old Norse *gumi*), \'the wintry one\' (from *gemla*), or \'the protector\', the \'engulfer\' (from *geyma*). (For more on this topic, see discussion below)
| 416 |
Ægir
| 0 |
1,802 |
## Attestations
Ægir is attested in a variety of Old Norse sources.
### *Sonatorrek*
Ægir and Rán receive mention in the poem *Sonatorrek* attributed to 10th century Icelandic skald Egill Skallagrímsson. In the poem, Egill laments the death of his son Böðvar, who drowned at sea during a storm. In one difficult stanza, the skald expresses the pain of losing his son by invoking the image of slaying the personified sea, personified as Ægir (Old Norse *ǫlsmið\[r\]* \'ale-smith\') and Rán (*Ægis man* \'Ægir\'s wife\'):
+----------------------+--------------------------------------+---+
| : Veiztu um ϸá sǫk | : You know, | |
| : sverði of rækak, | : if I took revenge with the sword | |
| : var ǫlsmið\[r\] | : for that offence, | |
| : allra tíma; | : Ægir would be dead; | |
| : hroða vágs brœðr | : if I could kill them, | |
| : ef vega mættak; | : I would fight Ægir and Rán. | |
| : fœra ek andvígr | | |
| : Ægis mani. | | |
+----------------------+--------------------------------------+---+
The skald later references Ægir by way of the kenning \'Hlér\'s fire\' (*Hlés viti*), meaning gold.
### *Poetic Edda* {#poetic_edda}
In the *Poetic Edda*, Ægir receives mention in the eddic poems *Grímnismál*, *Hymiskviða*, *Lokasenna*, and in the prose section of *Helgakviða Hundingsbana I*. In *Grímnismál*, the disguised god Odin references Ægir\'s status as a renowned host among the gods:
: \'Fleeting visions I have now revealed before the victory-gods\'s sons,
: now the wished-for protection will awaken;
: to the all the Æsir it will become known,
: on Ægir\'s benches,
: at Ægir\'s feast.\'
In *Hymiskviða*, Ægir plays a major role. In the poem, the gods have become thirsty after a successful hunt, and are keen to celebrate with drink. They \"shook the twigs and looked at the augury\" and \"found that at Ægir\'s was an ample choice of cauldrons\". Odin goes to Ægir, who he finds sitting in good cheer, and tells him he shall \"often prepare a feast for the Æsir\". Referring to Ægir as a jötunn, the poem describes how, now annoyed, Ægir hatches a plan: He asks Thor to fetch a particular cauldron, and that with it he could brew ale for them all. The gods are unable to find a cauldron of a size big enough to meet Ægir\'s request until the god Týr recommends one he knows of far away, setting the stage for the events of the rest of the poem.
According to the prose introduction to *Lokasenna*, \"Ægir, who is also called Gymir\", was hosting a feast \"with the great cauldron which has just been told about\", which many of the gods and elves attended. The prose introduction describes the feast as featuring gold that shimmers like fire light and ale that serves itself, and that \"it was a great place of peace\". In attendance also were Ægir\'s servers, Fimafeng and Eldir. The gods praise the excellence of their service and, hearing this, Loki murders Fimafeng, enraging the gods, who chase him out to the woods before returning to drink.
In the poem that follows the prose introduction (and in accompanying prose), Loki returns to the hall and greets Eldir: He says that before Eldir steps forward, he should first tell him what the gods are discussing in the hall. Eldir says that they\'re discussing weaponry and war, and having nothing good to say about Loki. Loki says that he will enter Ægir\'s halls and have a look at the feast, and with him bring quarrel and strife. Eldir notifies Loki that if he enters and causes trouble, he can expect them to return it to him. Loki enters the hall and the gods see him and become silent.
In *Helgakviða Hundingsbana I*, a great wave is referred to as \"Ægir\'s terrible daughter\".
| 643 |
Ægir
| 1 |
1,802 |
## Attestations
### *Prose Edda* {#prose_edda}
Ægir receives numerous mentions in the *Prose Edda* book *Skáldskaparmál*, where he sits at a banquet and asks the skaldic god Bragi many questions, and Bragi responds with narratives about the gods. The section begins as follows:
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
| : Anthony Faulkes translation (1987): | : Andy Orchard translation (1997): | : J. Lindow translation (2002): | |
| : There was a person whose name was Ægir or Hler. He lived on an island which is now called Hlesey. He was very skilled in magic. He set out to visit Asgard, and when the Æsir became aware of his movements, he was given a great welcome, though many things had deceptive appearances. | | : A man was named Ægir or Hlér; he lived on that island which is now called Hlér\'s Island. He had much magic knowledge. He made his way to Ásgard, but the æsir knew of his journey in advance. He was well received, but many things were done with illusions. | |
| | There was a figure called Ægir or Hlér; he lived on an island, which is now called Hléysey. He was very crafty in magic. He set off to visit Ásgard, and when the Æsir realized he was coming, he was given a splen did welcome, although many things were not as they seemed; | | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---+
Beyond this section of *Skáldskaparmál*, Ægir receives several other mentions in kennings. Section 25 provides examples for \'sea\', including \'visitor of the gods\', \'husband of Rán\', \'father of Ægir\'s daughters\', \'land of Rán and Ægir\'s daughters\'. Kennings cited to skalds in this section include \'the storm-happy daughters of Ægir\' meaning \'waves\' (Svein) and a kenning in a fragment of a work by the 11th century Icelandic skald Hofgarða-Refr Gestsson, where Rán is referred to as \'Gymir\'s \... völva\': `{{blockquote|
<small>Anthony Faulkes translation</small>
:And as Ref said:
::Gymir's spray-cold spæ-wife often brings the twisted-rope-bear [ship] into Ægir's jaws [under the waves] where the wave breaks.<ref name="FAULKES-1995-91-140">{{harvnb|Faulkes|1995|p=91}}. This stanza appears quoted a second time later in ''Skáldskaparmál'', for which see {{harvnb|Faulkes|1995|p=140}}.</ref>
}}`{=mediawiki} The section\'s author comments that the stanza \"\[implies\] that they are all the same, Ægir and Hler and Gymir.
Chapter 33b of *Skáldskaparmál* discusses why skalds may refer to gold as \"Ægir\'s fire\". The section traces the kenning to a narrative surrounding Ægir, in which the jötunn employs \"glowing gold\" in the center of his hall to light it \"like fire\" (which the narrator compares to flaming swords in Valhalla). The section explains that \"Ran is the name of Ægir\'s wife, and the names of their nine daughters are as was written above \... Then the Æsir discovered that Ran had a net in which she caught everyone that went to sea \... so this is the story of the origin of gold being called fire or light or brightness of Ægir, Ran or Ægir\'s daughters, and from such kennings the practice has now developed of calling gold fire of the sea and of all terms for it, since Ægir and Ran\'s names are also terms for the sea, and hence gold is now called fire of lakes or rivers and of all river-names.\"
In chapter 61 provides yet more kennings. Among them the author notes that \"Ran, who, it is said, was Ægir\'s wife\" and that \"the daughters of Ægir and Ran are nine\". In chapter 75, Ægir occurs in a list of jötnar.
### Saga corpus {#saga_corpus}
In what appears to be a Norwegian genealogical tradition, Ægir is portrayed as one of the three elements among the sea, the fire and the wind. The beginning of the *Orkneyinga saga* (\'Saga of the Orkney Islanders\') and *Hversu Noregr byggdisk* (\'How Norway Was Settled\') tell that the jötunn king Fornjót had three sons: Hlér (\'sea\'), whom he called Ægir, a second named Logi (\'fire\'), and a third called Kári (\'wind\').
| 652 |
Ægir
| 2 |
1,802 |
## Scholarly reception and interpretation {#scholarly_reception_and_interpretation}
### Banquets
Carolyne Larrington says that Ægir\'s role in *Hymiskviða* \"may reflect Scandinavian royal practices in which the king enforces his authority on his subordinates by visiting their homes and demanding to be feasted\". According to Andy Orchard, Ægir\'s role in *Skáldskaparmál*, where he attends a banquet rather than hosting it, could be a deliberate inversion of the traditional motif of Ægir as host.
### Gymir
The name *Gymir* may indicate that Ægir was understood as the father of the beautiful jötunn Gerðr; they may also have been two different figures sharing the same name (see Gymir, father of Gerðr). Both the prose introduction to *Lokasenna* and *Skáldskaparmál* state that Ægir is also known as *Gymir*, the father of the jötunn Gerðr. Rudolf Simek argues that, if understood to be two different entities, this may stem from an erroneous interpretation of kennings in which different jötunn-names are used interchangeably.
### Hlér, Læsø, Lejre, and Snow {#hlér_læsø_lejre_and_snow}
As highlighted above in *Skáldskaparmál*, the name of the island Læsø in Denmark references Hlér (Old Norse *Hléysey* \'Hlér\'s Island\'). Simek speculates that Hlér may therefore have been seen as something of an ancestor of the island.
Some medieval Danish chronicles mention Hler and connect him with a figure named Snær (Old Norse \'snow\'). In the Latin-language *Chronicon Lethrense* (\"Chronicle of Lejre\"; the name *Lejre* may, like *Læsø*, derive from Hler) and Old Danish *Gesta Danorum på danskæ*, a giant named Lae (or Lee) who lived on the island of Leshø had a shepherd named Snyo (or Snio, from Old Norse *Snær* \'Snow\'). When Raka, the dog king of the Danes had died, Lae sent Snyo to win the kingship of Denmark from King Athisl of Sweden, which he did. King Snyo was cruel to his subjects, and only a man named Røth (or Roth) would stand up to him. Snyo sent Røth to Lae\'s island to ask Lae how King Snyo would die, but expecting that Røth would die in the attempt. Lae refused to answer Røth\'s request until Røth had said three truthful things. Røth said that he had never seen thicker walls on a house than on Lae\'s, that he had never seen a man with so many heads as Lae, and that if he got away from there, he would never long to be back. Lae therefore released Røth and prophesied that Snyo would die from being bitten to death by lice. In the *Chronicon Lethrense*, Røth only announces this in Snyo\'s court before lice erupt from Snyo\'s nostrils and ears to eat him to death; in the *Gesta Danorum på danskæ*, Lae gives Røth a pair of gloves for Snyo, who is eaten to death by lice when he pulls them on.
### Jötunn
Scholars have often discussed Ægir\'s role as host to the gods and his description as a jötunn. Anthony Faulkes observes that Ægir is \"often described by modern writers as god of the sea\" yet that he is nowhere described as a god in the *Prose Edda* and appears in a list of jötnar in *Skáldskaparmál*. According to John Lindow, since his wife Rán is listed among the Ásynjur (goddesses) in the same part of the *Prose Edda*, and since he had a close and friendly relationship with the Æsir (gods), Ægir\'s description as a jötunn appears questionable. Andy Orchard argues on the contrary that Ægir\'s inclusion among the Æsir is probably a late development since his daughters are described as jötnar and some sources mention him as the descendant of the jötunn Fornjót. According to Rudolf Simek, while attested as a jötunn, Ægir \"has characteristics\" of a sea god.
| 610 |
Ægir
| 3 |
1,802 |
## Modern influence {#modern_influence}
Ægir has been the subject of a variety of art pieces. These include Nils Blommér\'s painting *Näcken och Ägirs döttrar* (1850), Johan Peter Molin\'s (d. 1874) fountain relief *Ægir*, and Emil Doepler\'s *Ægir* (1901).
Ægir is referenced in a variety of others ways in modern popular culture. For example, Shoto Todoroki from the Japanese anime \"Boku no hero academia\" has a move titled \"Great Glacial Aegir\". He is also the namesake of a Norwegian corvette produced in 1967 (*Ægir*), a coastal defense ship in the Imperial German Navy, and of an exoplanet, Epsilon Eridani b
| 99 |
Ægir
| 4 |
1,825 |
**Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe** (27 September 1818 -- 25 November 1884) was a German chemist and academic, and a major contributor to the birth of modern organic chemistry. He was a professor at Marburg and Leipzig. Kolbe was the first to apply the term synthesis in a chemical context, and contributed to the philosophical demise of vitalism through synthesis of the organic substance acetic acid from carbon disulfide, and also contributed to the development of structural theory. This was done via modifications to the idea of \"radicals\" and accurate prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols, and to the emerging array of organic reactions through his Kolbe electrolysis of carboxylate salts, the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction in the preparation of aspirin and the Kolbe nitrile synthesis. After studies with Wöhler and Bunsen, Kolbe was involved with the early internationalization of chemistry through work in London (with Frankland). He was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and won the Royal Society of London\'s Davy Medal in the year of his death. Despite these accomplishments and his training important members of the next generation of chemists (including Zaitsev, Curtius, Beckmann, Graebe, Markovnikov, and others), Kolbe is best remembered for editing the *Journal für Praktische Chemie* for more than a decade, in which his vituperative essays on Kekulé\'s structure of benzene, van\'t Hoff\'s theory on the origin of chirality and Baeyer\'s reforms of nomenclature were personally critical and linguistically violent. Kolbe died of a heart attack in Leipzig at age 66, six years after the death of his wife, Charlotte.
## Life
Kolbe was born in Elliehausen, near Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover (Germany) as the eldest son of a Protestant pastor. At the age of 13, he entered the Göttingen Gymnasium, residing at the home of one of the professors. He obtained the leaving certificate (the Abitur) six years later. He had become passionate about the study of chemistry, matriculating at the University of Göttingen in the spring of 1838 in order to study with the famous chemist Friedrich Wöhler.
In 1842, he became an assistant to Robert Bunsen at the Philipps-Universität Marburg. He took his doctoral degree in 1843 at the same university. A new opportunity arose in 1845, when he became assistant to Lyon Playfair at the new *Museum of Economic Geology* in London and a close friend of Edward Frankland. From 1847, he was engaged in editing the *Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie* (*Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry*) edited by Justus von Liebig, Wöhler, and Johann Christian Poggendorff, and he also wrote an important textbook. In 1851, Kolbe succeeded Bunsen as professor of chemistry at Marburg and, in 1865, he was called to the Universität Leipzig. In 1864, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1874.
In 1853, he married Charlotte, the daughter of General-Major Wilhelm von Bardeleben. His wife died in 1876 after 23 years of happy marriage. They had four children.
| 505 |
Hermann Kolbe
| 0 |
1,825 |
## Work in chemical research {#work_in_chemical_research}
As late as the 1840s, and despite Friedrich Wöhler\'s synthesis of urea in 1828, some chemists still believed in the doctrine of vitalism, according to which a special life-force was necessary to create \"organic\" (i.e., in its original meaning, biologically derived) compounds. Kolbe promoted the idea that organic compounds could be derived from substances clearly sourced from outside this \"organic\" context, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. (Hence, while by modern definitions, he was converting one organic molecule to another, by the parlance of his era, he was converting \"inorganic\"---*anorganisch*---substances into \"organic\" ones only thought accessible through vital processes.) He validated his theory by converting carbon disulfide (CS~2~) to acetic acid (`{{Chem2|CH3COOH}}`{=mediawiki}) in several steps (1843--45). Kolbe also introduced a modified idea of structural radicals, so contributing to the development of structural theory. A dramatic success came when his theoretical prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols was confirmed by the synthesis of the first of these classes of organic molecules. Kolbe was the first person to use the word synthesis in its present-day meaning, and contributed a number of new chemical reactions.
In particular, Kolbe developed procedures for the electrolysis of the salts of fatty and other carboxylic acids (Kolbe electrolysis)`{{primary source inline|date=July 2014}}`{=mediawiki} and prepared salicylic acid, a building block of aspirin in a process called Kolbe synthesis or Kolbe-Schmitt reaction. His method for the synthesis of nitriles is called the Kolbe nitrile synthesis, and with Edward Frankland he found that nitriles can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids. In addition to his own bench research and scholarly and editorial work, Kolbe oversaw student research at Leipzig and especially at Marburg; students spending time under his tutelage included Peter Griess, Aleksandr Mikhailovich Zaitsev (known for Zaitsev\'s rule predicting the product composition of elimination reactions), Theodor Curtius (discoverer of diazo compounds, hydrazines, and the Curtius rearrangement), Ernst Otto Beckmann (discoverer of the Beckmann rearrangement), Carl Graebe (discoverer of alizarin), Oscar Loew, Constantin Fahlberg, Nikolai Menshutkin, Vladimir Markovnikov (first to describe carbocycles smaller and larger than cyclohexane, and known for Markovnikov\'s rule describing addition reactions to alkenes), Jacob Volhard, Ludwig Mond, Alexander Crum Brown (first to describe the double bond of ethylene), Maxwell Simpson, and Frederick Guthrie.
## Work as journal editor {#work_as_journal_editor}
Besides his work for periodicals he wrote numerous books Kolbe served for more than a decade as what, in modern terms, would be understood the senior editor of the *Journal für Praktische Chemie* (*Journal of practical chemistry*, from 1870 to 1884), Kolbe was sometimes so severely critical of the work of others, especially after about 1874, that some wondered whether he might have been suffering a mental illness. He was intolerant of what he regarded as loose speculation parading as theory, and sought through his writings to save his beloved science of chemistry from what he regarded as the scourge of modern structural theory.
His rejection of structural chemistry, especially the theories of the structure of benzene by August Kekulé, the theory of the asymmetric carbon atom by J.H. van\'t Hoff, and the reform of chemical nomenclature by Adolf von Baeyer, was expressed in his vituperative articles in the *Journal für Praktische Chemie*. Some translated quotes illustrate his manner of articulating the deep conflict between his interpretation of chemistry and that of the structural chemists:
> «*\...Baeyer is an excellent experimentor, but he is only an empiricist, lacking sense and capability, and his interpretations of his experiments show particular deficiency in his familiarity with the principles of true science\...»*
The violence of his language worked to limit his posthumous reputation
| 601 |
Hermann Kolbe
| 1 |
1,826 | 0 |
April 18
| 0 |
|
1,827 | 0 |
April 23
| 0 |
|
1,832 |
In linguistics, an **allomorph** is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or in other words, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term *allomorph* describes the realization of phonological variations for a specific morpheme. The different allomorphs that a morpheme can become are governed by morphophonemic rules. These phonological rules determine what phonetic form, or specific pronunciation, a morpheme will take based on the phonological or morphological context in which it appears.
Allomorphy in English involves the variation of morphemes in their phonetic form based on specific linguistic contexts, a phenomenon governed by morphophonemic rules. For instance, the past tense morpheme \"-ed\" can manifest in different forms---\[-əd\], \[-t\], or \[-d\]---depending on the final sound of the verb stem. This variability is not random but follows predictable patterns, such as the insertion of a schwa \[ə\] or assimilation to the voicing of the preceding consonant. Similarly, English plural morphemes exhibit three allomorphs: \[-s\], \[-z\], and \[-əz\], with pronunciation determined by the final sound of the noun, whether it be a voiceless consonant, a voiced consonant, or a sibilant. In addition, negative prefixes like \"in-\" display allomorphy, changing from \[ɪn-\] to \[ɪŋ-\] or \[ɪm-\] depending on the following consonant\'s place of articulation. This systematic variation reflects the intricate relationship between phonology and morphology in language, with allomorph selection being guided by both phonological environment and morphological constraints (Pak, 2016; Stanton, 2022).
## In English {#in_english}
English has several morphemes that vary in sound but not in meaning, such as past tense morphemes, plural morphemes, and negative morphemes.
### Past tense allomorphs {#past_tense_allomorphs}
For example, an English past tense morpheme is *-ed*, which occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment by assimilating the voicing of the previous segment or the insertion of a schwa after an alveolar stop. A possible set of assimilations is:
- as `{{IPA|[-əd]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[-ɪd]}}`{=mediawiki} in verbs whose stem ends with the alveolar stops `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki}, such as \'hunted\' `{{IPA|[hʌntɪd]}}`{=mediawiki} or \'banded\' `{{IPA|[bændɪd]}}`{=mediawiki}
- as `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} in verbs whose stem ends with voiceless phonemes other than `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki}, such as \'fished\' `{{IPA|[fɪʃt]}}`{=mediawiki}
- as `{{IPA|[-d]}}`{=mediawiki} in verbs whose stem ends with voiced phonemes other than `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki}, such as \'buzzed\' `{{IPA|[bʌzd]}}`{=mediawiki}
The \"other than\" restrictions above are typical for allomorphy. If the allomorphy conditions are ordered from most restrictive (in this case, after an alveolar stop) to least restrictive, the first matching case usually has precedence. Thus, the above conditions could be rewritten as follows:
- as `{{IPA|[-əd]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[-ɪd]}}`{=mediawiki} when the stem ends with the alveolar stops `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki}
- as `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} when the stem ends with voiceless phonemes
- as `{{IPA|[-d]}}`{=mediawiki} elsewhere
The `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph does not appear after stem-final `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} although the latter is voiceless, which is then explained by `{{IPA|[-əd]}}`{=mediawiki} appearing in that environment, together with the fact that the environments are ordered (that is, listed in order of priority). Likewise, the `{{IPA|[-d]}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph does not appear after stem-final `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki} because the earlier clause for the `{{IPA|/-əd/}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph has priority. The `{{IPA|/-d/}}`{=mediawiki} allomorph does not appear after stem-final voiceless phoneme because the preceding clause for the `{{IPA|[-t]}}`{=mediawiki} comes first.
Irregular past tense forms, such as \"broke\" or \"was/were,\" can be seen as still more specific cases since they are confined to certain lexical items, such as the verb \"break,\" which take priority over the general cases listed above.
### Plural allomorphs {#plural_allomorphs}
The plural morpheme for regular nouns in English is typically realized by adding an *-s* or *-es* to the end of the noun. However, the plural morpheme actually has three different allomorphs: \[-s\], \[-z\], and \[-əz\]. The specific pronunciation that a plural morpheme takes on is determined by a set of morphological rules such as the following:
- assume that the basic form of the plural morpheme, /-z/, is \[-z\] (\"bags\" /bægz/)
- the morpheme /-z/ becomes \[-əz\] by inserting an \[ə\] before \[-z\] when a noun ends in a sibilant (\"buses\" /bʌsəz/)
- change the morpheme /-z/ to a voiceless \[-s\] when a noun ends in a voiceless sound (\"caps\" /kæps/)
### Negative allomorphs {#negative_allomorphs}
In English, the negative prefix *in-* has three allomorphs: \[ɪn-\], \[ɪŋ-\], and \[ɪm-\]. The phonetic form that the negative morpheme /ɪn-/ uses is determined by a set of morphological rules; for example:
- the negative morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes \[ɪn-\] when preceding an alveolar consonant (\"intolerant\"/ɪnˈtɔlərənt/)
- the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes \[ɪŋ-\] before a velar consonant (\"incongruous\" /ɪŋˈkɔŋgruəs/)
- the morpheme /ɪn-/ becomes \[ɪm-\] before a bilabial consonant (\"improper\" /ɪmˈprɔpər/)
## In Sámi languages {#in_sámi_languages}
The Sámi languages have a trochaic pattern of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables. The vowels and consonants that are allowed in an unstressed syllable differ from those that are allowed in a stressed syllable. Consequently, every suffix and inflectional ending has two forms, and the form that is used depends on the stress pattern of the word to which it is attached. For example, Northern Sámi has the causative verb suffix -*hit/-ahttit* in which *-*hit** is selected when it would be the third syllable (and the preceding verb has two syllables), and *-*ahttit** is selected when it would be the third and the fourth syllables (and the preceding verb has three syllables):
- **goar·ru\'\'\'t\'\'\'** has two syllables and so when suffixed, the result is **goa·ru\'\'\'·hit\'\'\'**.
- has three syllables and so when suffixed, the result is **na·nos·m\'\'\'ah·ttit\'\'\'**.
The same applies to inflectional patterns in the Sami languages as well, which are divided into even stems and odd stems.
| 916 |
Allomorph
| 0 |
1,832 |
## Stem allomorphy {#stem_allomorphy}
Allomorphy can also exist in stems or roots, as in Classical Sanskrit:
**Singular** **Plural**
-------------- -------------- ------------
Nominative
Genitive
Instrumental
Locative
: **Vāk** (voice)
There are three allomorphs of the stem, `{{IPA|/vaːk/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/vaːt͡ʃ/}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{IPA|/vaːɡ/}}`{=mediawiki}, which are conditioned by the particular case-marking suffixes.
The form of the stem `{{IPA|/vaːk/}}`{=mediawiki}, found in the nominative singular and locative plural, is the etymological form of the morpheme. Pre-Indic palatalization of velars resulted in the variant form `{{IPA|/vaːt͡ʃ/}}`{=mediawiki}, which was initially phonologically conditioned. The conditioning can still be seen in the locative singular form, for which the `{{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}`{=mediawiki} is followed by the high front vowel `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki}.
However, the subsequent merging of `{{IPA|/e/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/o/}}`{=mediawiki} into `{{IPA|/a/}}`{=mediawiki} made the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds in the genitive case (both singular and plural) as well as the nominative plural and the instrumental singular. Thus, allomorphy was no longer directly relatable to phonological processes.
Phonological conditioning also accounts for the `{{IPA|/vaːɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} form in the instrumental plural, in which the `{{IPA|/ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} assimilates in voicing to the following `{{IPA|/bʱ/}}`{=mediawiki}.
## History
The term was originally used to describe variations in chemical structure. It was first applied to language (in writing) in 1948, by Fatih Şat and Sibel Merve in Language XXIV
| 206 |
Allomorph
| 1 |
1,834 |
`{{IPA notice}}`{=mediawiki} In phonology, an **allophone** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ə|f|oʊ|n|audio=En-us-allophone.ogg}}`{=mediawiki}; from the Greek *ἄλλος*, `{{Transliteration|grc|állos}}`{=mediawiki}, \'other\' and *φωνή*, `{{Transliteration|grc|phōnē}}`{=mediawiki}, \'voice, sound\') is one of multiple possible spoken sounds`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}or *phones*`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, in English, the voiceless plosive `{{IPAblink|t}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *stop* `{{IPA|[ˈstɒp]}}`{=mediawiki}) and the aspirated form `{{IPAblink|tʰ}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *top* `{{IPA|[ˈtʰɒp]}}`{=mediawiki}) are allophones for the phoneme `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki}, while these two are considered to be different phonemes in some languages such as Central Thai. Similarly, in Spanish, `{{IPAblink|d}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *dolor* `{{IPA|es|doˈloɾ|}}`{=mediawiki}) and `{{IPAblink|ð}}`{=mediawiki} (as in *nada* `{{IPA|es|ˈnaða|}}`{=mediawiki}) are allophones for the phoneme `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki}, while these two are considered to be different phonemes in English (as in the difference between *dare* and *there*).
The specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context, with such allophones being called **positional variants**, but some allophones occur in free variation. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme usually does not change the meaning of a word, but the result may sound non-native or even unintelligible.
Native speakers of a given language perceive one phoneme in the language as a single distinctive sound and are \"both unaware of and even shocked by\" the allophone variations that are used to pronounce single phonemes.
## History of concept {#history_of_concept}
The term \"allophone\" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf circa 1929. In doing so, he is thought to have placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by George L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition.
## Complementary and free-variant allophones {#complementary_and_free_variant_allophones}
Each time a speaker vocalizes a phoneme, they pronounce it differently from previous iterations. There is debate regarding how real and universal phonemes are (see phoneme for details). Only some of the variation is perceptible to listeners speakers.
There are two types of allophones: complementary allophones and free-variant allophones.
Complementary allophones are not interchangeable. If context requires a speaker to use a specific allophone for a given phoneme (that is, using a different allophone would confuse listeners), the possible allophones are said to be *complementary*. Each allophone from a complementary set is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process.
Otherwise, allophones are *free-variant*; speakers choose an allophone by habit or preference.
## Allotone
An **allotone** is a tonic allophone, such as the neutral tone in Standard Mandarin.
| 414 |
Allophone
| 0 |
1,834 |
## Examples
### English
There are many allophonic processes in English: lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.
- Aspiration: In English, a voiceless plosive `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} is aspirated (has a strong explosion of breath) if it is at the beginning of the first or a stressed syllable in a word. For example, `{{IPA|[pʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *pin* and `{{IPA|[p]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *spin* are allophones for the phoneme `{{IPA|/p/}}`{=mediawiki} because they cannot be used to distinguish words (in fact, they occur in complementary distribution). English-speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different: the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Many languages treat the two phones differently.
- Nasal plosion: In English, a plosive (`{{IPA|/p, t, k, b, d, ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki}) has nasal plosion if it is followed by a nasal, whether within a word or across a word boundary.
- Partial devoicing of sonorants: In English, sonorants (`{{IPA|/j, w, l, r, m, n/}}`{=mediawiki}) are partially devoiced after a voiceless sound in the same syllable.
- Complete devoicing of sonorants: In English, a sonorant is completely devoiced after an aspirated plosive (`{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki}).
- Partial devoicing of obstruents: In English, a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound within a word or across a word boundary.
- Retraction: In English, `{{IPA|/t, d, n, l/}}`{=mediawiki} are retracted before `{{IPA|/r/}}`{=mediawiki}.
Because the choice among allophones is seldom under conscious control, few people realize their existence. English-speakers may be unaware of differences between a number of (dialect-dependent) allophones of the phoneme `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki}:
- post-aspirated `{{IPA|[tʰ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *top*,
- unaspirated `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *stop*.
- glottalized (or rather substituted by the glottal stop) `{{IPA|[ʔ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in *button*, but many speakers preserve at least an unreleased coronal stop `{{IPA|[ t̚]}}`{=mediawiki}.
In addition, the following allophones of /t/ are found in (at least) some dialects of American(ised) English;
- flapped `{{IPA|[ɾ]}}`{=mediawiki} as in American English *water*,
- nasal(ized) flapped `{{IPA|[ɾ̃]}}`{=mediawiki} as in American English *winter*.
- unreleased `{{IPA|[ t̚]}}`{=mediawiki} as in American English *cat*, but other dialects preserve the released `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki}, or substitute the glottal stop `{{IPA|[ʔ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
However, speakers may become aware of the differences if`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}for example`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}they contrast the pronunciations of the following words:
- *Night rate*: unreleased `{{IPA|[ˈnʌɪt̚.ɹʷeɪt̚]}}`{=mediawiki} (without a word space between `{{IPA|[ . ]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[ɹ]}}`{=mediawiki})
- *Nitrate*: aspirated `{{IPA|[ˈnaɪ.tʰɹ̥eɪt̚]}}`{=mediawiki} or retracted `{{IPA|[ˈnaɪ.t̠ɹ̠̊˔ʷeɪt̚]}}`{=mediawiki}
A flame that is held in front of the lips while those words are spoken flickers more for the aspirated *nitrate* than for the unaspirated *night rate.* The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin-speaker, for whom `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/tʰ/}}`{=mediawiki} are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than for an English-speaker, who has learned since childhood to ignore the distinction.
One may notice the (dialect-dependent) allophones of English `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki} such as the (palatal) alveolar \"light\" `{{IPA|[l]}}`{=mediawiki} of *leaf* `{{IPA|[ˈliːf]}}`{=mediawiki} as opposed to the velar alveolar \"dark\" `{{IPA|[ɫ]}}`{=mediawiki} in *feel* `{{IPA|[ˈfiːɫ]}}`{=mediawiki} found in the U.S. and Southern England. The difference is much more obvious to a Turkish-speaker, for whom `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/ɫ/}}`{=mediawiki} are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme.
These descriptions are more sequentially broken down in the next section.
| 562 |
Allophone
| 1 |
1,834 |
## Examples
### English
#### Rules for English consonant allophones {#rules_for_english_consonant_allophones}
Peter Ladefoged, a renowned phonetician, clearly explains the consonant allophones of English in a precise list of statements to illustrate the language behavior. Some of these rules apply to all the consonants of English; the first item on the list deals with consonant length, items 2 through 18 apply to only selected groups of consonants, and the last item deals with the quality of a consonant. These descriptive rules are as follows:
1. Consonants are longer when they come at the end of a phrase. This can be easily tested by recording a speaker saying a sound like \"bib\", then comparing the forward and backward playback of the recording. One will find that the backward playback does not sound like the forward playback because the production of what is expected to be the same sound is not identical.
2. Voiceless stops `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} are aspirated when they come at the beginning of a syllable, such as in words like \"pip, test, kick\" `{{IPA|[pʰɪp, tʰɛst, kʰɪk]}}`{=mediawiki}. We can compare this with voiceless stops that are not syllable initial like \"stop\" \[stɑp\]. The `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} voiceless stop follows the `{{IPA|/s/}}`{=mediawiki} (fricative) here.
3. Voiced obstruents, which include stops and fricatives, such as `{{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, v, ð, z, ʒ/}}`{=mediawiki}, that come at the end of an utterance like `{{IPA|/v/}}`{=mediawiki} in \"improve\" or before a voiceless sound like `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki} in \"add two\") are only briefly voiced during the articulation.
4. Voiced stops and affricates `{{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/}}`{=mediawiki} in fact occur as partially devoiced at the beginning of a syllable unless immediately preceded by a voiced sound, in which the voiced sound carries over.
5. Approximants (in English, these include `{{IPA|/w, r, j, l/}}`{=mediawiki}) are partially devoiced when they occur after syllable-initial `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} like in \"play, twin, cue\" `{{IPA|[pʰl̥eɪ, tʰw̥ɪn, kʰj̥u]}}`{=mediawiki}.
6. Voiceless stops `{{IPA|/p, t, k/}}`{=mediawiki} are not aspirated when following after a syllable initial fricative, such as in the words \"spew, stew, skew.\"
7. Voiceless stops and affricates `{{IPA|/p, t, k, tʃ/}}`{=mediawiki} are longer than their voiced counterparts `{{IPA|/b, d, ɡ, dʒ/}}`{=mediawiki} when situated at the end of a syllable. Try comparing \"cap\" to \"cab\" or \"back\" to \"bag\".
8. When a stop comes before another stop, the explosion of air only follows after the second stop, illustrated in words like \"apt\" `{{IPA|[æp̚t]}}`{=mediawiki} and \"rubbed\" `{{IPA|[rʌb̚d]}}`{=mediawiki}.
9. Many English accents produce a glottal stop in syllables that end with voiceless stops. Some examples include pronunciations of \"tip, pit, kick\" `{{IPA|[tʰɪʔp, pʰɪʔt, kʰɪʔk]}}`{=mediawiki}.
10. Some accents of English use a glottal stop in place of a `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} when it comes before an alveolar nasal in the same word (as opposed to in the next word), such as in the word \"beaten\" `{{IPA|[ˈbiːʔn̩]}}`{=mediawiki}.
11. Nasals become syllabic, or their own syllable, only when immediately following an obstruent (as opposed to just any consonant), such as in the words \"leaden, chasm\" `{{IPA|[ˈlɛdn̩, ˈkæzm̩]}}`{=mediawiki}. Take in comparison \"kiln, film\"; in most accents of English, the nasals are not syllabic.
12. The lateral `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki}, however, is syllabic at the end of the word when immediately following any consonant, like in \"paddle, whistle\" `{{IPA|[ˈpʰædl̩, ˈwɪsl̩]}}`{=mediawiki}.
1. When considering `{{IPA|/r, l/}}`{=mediawiki} as liquids, `{{IPA|/r/}}`{=mediawiki} is included in this rule as well as present in the words \"sabre, razor, hammer, tailor\" `{{IPA|[ˈseɪbɹ̩, ˈreɪzɹ̩, ˈhæmɹ̩, ˈtʰeɪlɹ̩]}}`{=mediawiki}.
13. Alveolar stops become voiced taps when they occur between two vowels, as long as the second vowel is unstressed. Take for instance mainly American English pronunciations like \"fatty, data, daddy, many\" `{{IPA|[ˈfæɾi, ˈdeɪɾə, ˈdæɾi, ˈmɛɾ̃i]}}`{=mediawiki}.
1. When an alveolar nasal is followed by a stop, the `{{IPA|/t/}}`{=mediawiki} is lost and a nasal tap occurs, causing \"winter\" to sound just like \"winner\" or \"panting\" to sound just like \"panning\". In this case, both alveolar stops and alveolar nasal plus stop sequences become voiced taps after two vowels when the second vowel is unstressed. This can vary among speakers, where the rule does not apply to certain words or when speaking at a slower pace.
14. All alveolar consonants assimilate to dentals when occurring before a dental. Take the words \"eighth, tenth, wealth\". This also applies across word boundaries, for example \"at this\" `{{IPA|[ˈæt̪ ðɪs]}}`{=mediawiki}.
15. Alveolar stops are reduced or omitted when between two consonants. Some examples include \"most people\" (can be written either as `{{IPA|[ˈmoʊs ˈpʰipl̩]}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{IPA|[ˈmoʊst ˈpʰipl̩]}}`{=mediawiki} with the IPA, where the `{{IPA|[t]}}`{=mediawiki} is inaudible, and \"sand paper, grand master\", where the `{{IPA|[d]}}`{=mediawiki} is inaudible.
16. A consonant is shortened when it is before an identical consonant, such as in \"big game\" or \"top post\".
17. A homorganic voiceless stop may be inserted after a nasal before a voiceless fricative followed by an unstressed vowel in the same word. For example, a bilabial voiceless plosive `{{IPA|/p/}}`{=mediawiki} can be detected in the word \"something\" `{{IPA|[ˈsʌmpθɪŋ]}}`{=mediawiki} even though it is orthographically not indicated. This is known as epenthesis. However, the following vowel must be unstressed.
18. Velar stops `{{IPA|/k, ɡ/}}`{=mediawiki} become more front when the following vowel sound in the same syllable becomes more front. Compare for instance \"cap\" `{{IPA|[kʰæp]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"key\" `{{IPA|[kʲi]}}`{=mediawiki} and \"gap\" `{{IPA|[ɡæp]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"geese\" `{{IPA|[ɡʲiːs]}}`{=mediawiki}.
19. The lateral `{{IPA|/l/}}`{=mediawiki} is velarized at the end of a word when it comes after a vowel as well as before a consonant. Compare for example \"life\" `{{IPA|[laɪf]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"file\" `{{IPA|[faɪɫ]}}`{=mediawiki} or \"feeling\" `{{IPA|[fiːlɪŋ]}}`{=mediawiki} vs. \"feel\" `{{IPA|[fiːɫ]}}`{=mediawiki}.
### Other languages {#other_languages}
There are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation: examples are Hawaiian and Pirahã. Here are some examples (the links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon):
- Consonant allophones
- Final devoicing, particularly final-obstruent devoicing: Arapaho, English, Nahuatl, Catalan and many others
- Voicing of initial consonant
- Anticipatory assimilation
- Aspiration changes: Algonquin
- Frication between vowels: Dahalo
- Lenition: Manx, Corsican
- Voicing of clicks: Dahalo
```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
- - Allophones for `{{IPA|/b/}}`{=mediawiki}: Arapaho, Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/d/}}`{=mediawiki}: Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/f/}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/j/}}`{=mediawiki}: Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/k/}}`{=mediawiki}: Manam
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/pʰ/}}`{=mediawiki}: Garhwali
- and `{{IPAblink|q}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones: a number of Arabic dialects
- and `{{IPA|[n]}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones: Some dialects of Hawaiian, and some of Mandarin (e.g. Southwestern and Lower Yangtze)
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/n/}}`{=mediawiki}
- : Finnish, Spanish and many more.
- wide range of variation in Japanese (as archiphoneme /N/)
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/r/}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali, Xavante
- Allophones for `{{IPAslink|ɽ}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/s/}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali, Taos
- and `{{IPAblink|k}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones: Hawaiian
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/w/}}`{=mediawiki}:
- and `{{IPA|[w]}}`{=mediawiki}: Hindustani, Hawaiian
- fricative `{{IPAblink|β}}`{=mediawiki} before unrounded vowels: O\'odham
- Allophones for `{{IPAslink|z}}`{=mediawiki}: Bengali
- Vowel allophones
- and `{{IPA|[o]}}`{=mediawiki} are allophones of `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki} in closed final syllables in Malay`{{specify|reason=Malay has so many dialects|date=October 2024}}`{=mediawiki} and Portuguese, while `{{IPA|[ɪ]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|[ʊ]}}`{=mediawiki} are allophones of `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki} in Indonesian.
- as allophones for short `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{IPA|[<nowiki/>[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]], [[Near-close front unrounded vowel|ɪ]], e̞, [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel|e]]]}}`{=mediawiki} as allophones for short `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki} in various Arabic dialects (long `{{IPA|/uː/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/oː/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/iː/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/eː/}}`{=mediawiki} are separate phonemes in most Arabic dialects).
- Polish
- Russian
- Allophones for `{{IPA|/i/}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|/a/}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{IPA|/u/}}`{=mediawiki}: Nuxálk
- Vowel/consonant allophones
- Vowels become glides in diphthongs: Manam
| 1,222 |
Allophone
| 2 |
1,834 |
## Representing a phoneme with an allophone {#representing_a_phoneme_with_an_allophone}
Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple broad transcription is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, the allophony becomes significant and things then become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, that representation is chosen for the phoneme.
However, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than that allows. In such cases, a common convention is to use the \"elsewhere condition\" to decide the allophone that stands for the phoneme. The \"elsewhere\" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules.
For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only before a nasal consonant in the same syllable; elsewhere, they are oral. Therefore, by the \"elsewhere\" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic, and nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes.
In other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the languages of the world than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory.
An alternative, which is commonly used for archiphonemes, is to use a capital letter, such as /N/ for \[m\], \[n\], \[ŋ\].
In rare cases, a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as dingbats, to avoid privileging any particular allophone
| 288 |
Allophone
| 3 |
1,840 |
**Agathocles** (*Ἀγαθοκλῆς*, *Agathoklḗs*; 361--289 BC) was a tyrant of Syracuse from 317 BC and king of much of Sicily from 304 BC until his death. Agathocles began his career as a military officer, and raised his profile as a supporter of the democratic faction in Syracuse against the oligarchic civic government. His opponents forced him into exile and he became a mercenary leader. He eventually made his way back to Syracuse and was elected as a general. A few years later he took control through a coup d\'état. In practice he was a tyrant, although a democratic constitution theoretically remained in force.
Agathocles had led a long, costly war against the Carthaginians, who ruled the western half of Sicily, between 311 and 306 BC. In a military campaign he led the invasion of Carthage\'s North African heartland in 310 BC. After initial successes he abandoned his army in Africa and returned to Sicily in 307 BC, where he made peace with the Carthaginians and restored the *status quo ante bellum*. He then assumed the royal title and managed to bring almost the entire Greek portion of Sicily, and part of Calabria, under his control. Agathocles came close to of bringing the entirety of Magna Graecia under his control but his attempt to establish a dynasty fell apart as a result of conflict within his family.
## Biography
Agathocles was a son of Carcinus, who came from Rhegium. Carcinus was expelled from his hometown, so he migrated to Thermae Himeraeae and married a local citizen woman. Thermae, which was located on the north coast of Sicily, belonged to the western part of the island, which was under Carthaginian control. The couple had two sons, Antander and Agathocles. In 343 BC, when Agathocles was around eighteen years old, the family re-settled in Syracuse. Carcinus had answered a call from the commander Timoleon, which had overthrown the tyrannical regime of Dionysius II. Timoleon sought new citizens for the city, which had been depopulated by the civil wars. Thus, Carcinus and Agathocles acquired Syracusan citizenship. According to the sources, Carcinus was a potter and Agathocles followed him in his profession. Modern historians generally argue that he must have been a wealthy man who owned a pottery workshop. In later times, Agathocles frequently advertised his lower class origins and used them as part of his self-presentation as a ruler, since performative modesty and presenting himself as a man of the people would be important parts of his persona.
Agathocles began his military career during Timoleon\'s rule. He initially served as a soldier and then as an officer. Later, after Timoleon\'s death in 337 BC, Agathocles participated in an expedition against Acragas and began a relationship with the general, Damas, who promoted him to chiliarch. After Damas\' death, Agathocles married his widow. This made him one of the richest men in Syracuse, which gave him a good platform to begin his political ascent.
After Timoleon\'s death, Syracuse descended into the traditional conflict between democrats and oligarchs. The oligarchs had the upper hand and ruled the city as a club, called \"the Six Hundred.\" Agathocles\' elder brother, Antander, was elected to a generalship, during this period, so he must have had good relationships with members of the ruling circle. Agathocles, on the other hand, spoke in the people\'s assembly and placed himself on the side of the opposition democrats, but he was unable to overcome their power. After a successful campaign to defend Croton in southern Italy from the Bruttii, he denied an award for bravery which he felt he had earnt. After this, he openly opposed the government and openly accused the leading oligarchs, Sosistratus and Heracleides, of seeking to become tyrants. These accusations were not successful and the two oligarchs solidified their power. Agathocles\' situation in Syracuse was then untenable and he declared that he was compelled to leave the city. This does not necessarily mean that he was formally exiled.
| 656 |
Agathocles of Syracuse
| 0 |
1,840 |
## Biography
### Double exile {#double_exile}
Agathocles went to southern Italy, where he led the life of a mercenary captain. At the same time, he built up an independent power base, as preparation for a return to Syracuse. His first military effort was a failure, however: he attempted to bring the major city of Croton in Calabria under his control by force, probably in alliance with the local democrats, but he was completely defeated and had to flee with his surviving followers to Tarentum. The Tarentines accepted him into their mercenary forces, but they distrusted him because of his ambition and plots, which led to his dismissal. After this, he gathered together democrats who had been expelled from their cities by local oligarchs. An opportunity appeared at Rhegium, the hometown of Agathocles\' father. There, the democrats were in power, but the city was attacked by forces led by the Syracusan oligarchs, who wanted to help the local oligarchs take power by force. Agathocles defeated this Syracusan expeditionary force, which destabilised Sosistratus and Heracleides\' position in Syracuse and as a result they were overthrown in a coup. The democrats returned to power and drove the leading oligarchs out of Syracuse. The exiled oligarchs allied themselves with the Carthaginians. These developments allowed Agathocles to return home around 322 BC.
Agathocles distinguished himself in the subsequent battles against the Carthaginians and oligarchs, but did not manage to acquire a leading position in the city. Instead, the Syracusans chose to request a commander from their mother city, Corinth, in accordance with a law established by Timoleon. The Corinthians sent one Acestorides, who organised an amnesty for the oligarchs, made peace with the Carthaginians, and exiled Agathocles. The radical democrats were forced out and a moderate oligarchy was established. Acestorides even attempted to have Agathocles assassinated. Agathocles established a private army, apparently funded from his own assets. He took advantage of the fact that the Syracusans were considered oppressive by other cities in Sicily and successfully presented himself as a supporter of these cities\' interests against the Syracusans. He managed to take over Leontini and even led an attack on Syracuse. The situation became so tenuous for the oligarchs in Syracuse that they reached out to the Carthaginians for help.
Agathocles outpaced the oligarchs. He negotiated with the Carthaginian commander in Sicily, Hamilcar, and convinced him to withdraw. Allegedly, they had concluded a personal agreement to support each other in establishing themselves as sole rulers of their respective cities. After the loss of Carthaginian support, Syracuse was isolated. The citizens, who did not really wish to fight for oligarchy, agreed to allow Agathocles to return home. He swore the Syracuse \"great oath\", promising that he would not establish a tyranny. After that, he was elected commander in chief of the Syracusan army in 319/318 BC.
| 470 |
Agathocles of Syracuse
| 1 |
1,840 |
## Biography
### Seizure of power {#seizure_of_power}
The position of Agathocles within the city of Syracuse was initially that of a regular military commander, with wide but limited powers. His title was General and Guardian of the Peace (*strategos kai phylax tes eirenes*). In Syracuse, the surviving oligarchs banded together as \"The Six Hundred\" and continued to oppose him. Agathocles took advantage of the conflicts between the Syracusans and the non-Greek Sicels and between the rich and poor within Syracuse to overcome these opponents. On the pretext of taking military action against external enemies, he was able to gather a powerful force, which was loyal only to him, without raising suspicion.
In 317/6 or 316/5 BC, Agathocles used this force to launch a coup. At a meeting that the leading members of the opposition party had been invited to, he accused around forty of the oligarchs there of planning an attack on him and had them arrested and executed on the spot. His trumpeters gave the sign for battle and a general slaughter took place in the city, in which the wealthy and their supporters were the main victims. Their houses were plundered. According to Diodorus Siculus\'s account, over 4,000 people were killed, purely because they belonged to the upper class. More than 6,000 people escaped from the city, even though the gates had been locked. They mostly fled to Agrigentum.
Finally, Agathocles called an assembly of the people, in which he presented himself as a saviour of democracy in the face of the oligarchs and announced that he would retire from his position and return to private life. His followers responded by calling on him to take over the leadership of the state. He responded that he was willing to be general once more, but only if he could hold the role without any colleagues, as General with unlimited power (*strategós autokrátor*). This was the title that the earlier ruler Dionysius I had used as the legal basis for his tyranny. The people elected him to this position and also entrusted him with a general \"management of the city\" (*epiméleia tes póleos*). After this he announced a cancellation of debts and redistribution of the land, two planks of the traditional populist programme.
| 373 |
Agathocles of Syracuse
| 2 |
1,840 |
## Biography
### Rulership
War with Carthage followed. In 311 BC Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse. In 310 BC he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack Carthage. He landed at Cape Bon in August 310 BC, and was able to defeat the Carthaginians for the first time, and establish a camp near Tunis. He then turned east and tried to take over coastal trading cities such as Neapolis and Hadrumetum, and on this occasion concluded an alliance with Ailymas, king of the Libyans according to Diodorus of Sicily, in an attempt to surround and isolate Carthage. After capturing Hadrumetum, Thapsus and other coastal towns, Agathocles turned his attention to central Tunisia. Before or during this campaign, he broke his alliance with Ailymas, whom he pursued and killed, but he kept his Numidian army, including war chariots they built.
In 309/8 BC, Agathocles began trying to sway Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica, as he was likely to prove a useful ally in Agathocles\' war against the Carthaginians. To gain his allegiance, he promised to cede to Ophellas whatever conquests their combined forces might make in Africa, reserving to himself only the possession of Sicily. Ophellas gathered a powerful army from the homeland of his wife Euthydike (a descendant of Miltiades), Athens, where many citizens felt disgruntled after having lost their voting rights. Despite the natural obstacles that presented themselves on his route, Ophellas succeeded in reaching the Carthaginian territories after a toilsome and perilous march of more than two months. He was received by Agathocles with every demonstration of friendship, and the two armies encamped near each other, but a few days later, Agathocles betrayed his new ally by attacking the camp of the Cyrenaeans and having Ophellas killed. The Cyrenean troops, left without a leader, went over to Agathocles. After several victories, he was finally completely defeated (307 BC) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace with Carthage in 306 BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304 BC, and established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the Halycus River. Even in his old age, he displayed the same restless energy and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.
His last years were plagued by ill health and the attempted usurpation of his throne by his grandson Archagathus, whom Diodorus Siculus states had him poisoned; however Justinius and the majority of modern historians assert he died a natural death (presumably from cancer of the jaw). He was a born leader of mercenaries, and he did not shrink from cruelty for the purposes to royal power. Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his deathbed and did not want his grandson to succeed him as king.
## Family
Agathocles was married three times. His first wife was the widow of his patron Damas, by whom he had two sons:
- Archagathus, who was murdered by the army in Africa in 307 BC after Agathocles abandoned it. He had one son, also called Archagathus, who was Agathocles\' main general and heir in the 290s BC, but became involved in a succession dispute with his younger uncle, also called Agathocles, and was assassinated immediately after his father\'s death in 289 BC.
- Heracleides, who was murdered with his brother in Africa in 307 BC.
Agathocles\' second wife was Alcia, with whom he had two children:
- Lanassa, second wife of King Pyrrhus of Epirus and mother of Alexander II of Epirus.
- Agathocles, who was murdered in a succession dispute shortly before his father\'s death.
Agathocles\' third wife was Theoxena, who was the second daughter of Berenice I and her first husband Philip and thus a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter, king of Egypt. She escaped to Egypt with their two children following Agathocles\' death in 289 BC:
- Archagathus and Theoxena, who escaped to Egypt in 289 BC. Their descendants included Agathocleia and Agathocles of Egypt, who were Ptolemy IV\'s chief mistress and chief minister respectively, and dominated Egypt in the first years of Ptolemy V\'s reign.
| 709 |
Agathocles of Syracuse
| 3 |
1,840 |
## Legacy
Agathocles was cited as an example \"Of those who become princes through their crimes\" in chapter 8 of Niccolò Machiavelli\'s treatise on politics - *The Prince* (1513). He was described as behaving as a criminal at every stage of his career. Machiavelli claimed: `{{blockquote|Agathocles, the Sicilian, became King of Syracuse not only from a private but from a low and abject position. This man, the son of a potter, through all the changes in his fortunes, always led an infamous life. Nevertheless, he accompanied his infamies with so much ability of mind and body that, having devoted himself to the military profession, he rose through its ranks to be Praetor of Syracuse.<ref name="gutenberg">{{cite web|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm#link2HCH0008|website=gutenberg.org|title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Prince, by Nicolo Machiavelli | Chapter VIII |access-date=15 January 2022}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
Machiavelli goes on to reason that Agathocles\' success, in contrast to other criminal tyrants, was due to his ability to commit his crimes quickly and ruthlessly, and states that cruelties are best used when they `{{blockquote|are applied at one blow and are necessary to one's security, and that are not persisted in afterwards unless they can be turned to the advantage of the subjects
| 195 |
Agathocles of Syracuse
| 4 |
1,841 |
The **economy of Alberta** is the sum of all economic activity in Alberta, Canada\'s fourth largest province by population. Alberta\'s GDP in 2018 was CDN\$338.2 billion.
Although Alberta has a presence in many industries such as agriculture, forestry, education, tourism, finance, and manufacturing, the politics and culture of the province have been closely tied to the production of fossil energy since the 1940s. Alberta---with an estimated 1.4 billion cubic metres of unconventional oil resource in the bituminous oil sands---leads Canada as an oil producer.
In 2018, Alberta\'s energy sector contributed over \$71.5 billion to Canada\'s nominal gross domestic product. According to Statistics Canada, in May 2018, the oil and gas extraction industry reached its highest proportion of Canada\'s national GDP since 1985, exceeding 7% and \"surpass\[ing\] banking and insurance\" with extraction of non-conventional oil from the oilsands reaching an \"impressive\", all-time high in May 2018. With conventional oil extraction \"climbed up to the highs from 2007\", the demand for Canadian oil was strong in May.
From 1990 to 2003, Alberta\'s economy grew by 57% compared to 43% for all of Canada---the strongest economic growth of any region in Canada. In 2006 Alberta\'s per capita GDP was higher than all US states, and one of the highest figures in the world. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. Alberta\'s per capita GDP in 2007 was by far the highest of any province in Canada at C\$74,825 (approx. US\$75,000). Alberta\'s per capita GDP in 2007 was 61% higher than the Canadian average of C\$46,441 and more than twice that of all the Maritime provinces. From 2004 to 2014 Alberta\'s \"exports of commodities rose 91%, reaching \$121 billion in 2014\" and 500,000 new jobs were created. In 2014, Alberta\'s real GDP by expenditure grew by 4.8%, the strongest growth rate among the provinces.\" In 2017, Alberta\'s real per capita GDP---the economic output per person---was \$71,092, compared to the Canadian average of \$47,417. In 2016, Alberta\'s A grade on its income per capita was based on the fact that it was almost \"identical\" to that of the \"top peer country\"---Ireland.
The energy industry provided 7.7% of all jobs in Alberta in 2013, and 140,300 jobs representing 6.1% of total employment of 2,286,900 in Alberta in 2017. The unemployment rate in Alberta peaked in November 2016 at 9.1%. Its lowest point in a ten-year period from July 2009 to July 2019, was in September 2013 at 4.3%. The unemployment rate in the spring of 2019 in Alberta was 6.7% with 21,000 jobs added in April. By July 2019, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate had increased to 7.0%.
By August 2019, the employment number in Alberta was 2,344,000, following the loss of 14,000 full-time jobs in July, which represented the \"largest decline\" in Canada according to Statistics Canada.
Beginning in June 2014, the record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage---referred to as a global oil glut---caused crude oil prices to collapse at near ten-year low prices. By 2016 West Texas Intermediate (WTI)---the benchmark light, sweet crude oil---reached its lowest price in ten years---US\$26.55. In 2012 the price of WTI had reached US\$125 and in 2014 the price was \$100. By February 2016 the price of Western Canadian Select WCS---the Alberta benchmark heavy crude oil---was US\$14.10---the cheapest oil in the world. Alberta boom years from 2010 to 2014 ended with a \"long and deep\" recession that began in 2014, driven by low commodity pricing ended in 2017. By 2019---five years later---Alberta was still in recovery. Overall, there were approximately 35,000 jobs lost in mining, oil and gas alone. Since 2014, sectors that offered high-wage employment of \$30 and above, saw about 100,000 jobs disappear---\"construction (down more than 45,000 jobs), mining, oil and gas (down nearly 35,000), and professional services (down 18,000),\" according to the economist, Trevor Tombe. There was a decrease in wages, in the number of jobs, and in the number of hours worked. The total loss of incomes from \"workers, business, and government\" amounted to about 20 percent or about CDN\$75 billion less per year. Since 2011, prices have increased in Alberta by 18%. However, a typical worker in Alberta still earns more than a typical worker in all the other provinces and territories.
By March 2016, Alberta lost over 100,000 jobs in the oil patch. In spite of the surplus with the low price of WCS in 2015---99% of Canada\'s oil exports went to the United States and in 2015 Canada was still their largest exporter of total petroleum---3,789 thousand bpd in September---3,401 thousand bpd in October up from 3,026 thousand bpd in September 2014. By April 2019, two of the major oil companies, still had thousands of workers---Suncor had about 12,500 employees and Canadian Natural Resources had about 10,000 full-time employees.
Alberta has the \"lowest taxes overall of any province or territory\" in Canada, due in part to having high resource tax revenues. However, overall tax revenues from oil royalties and other non-renewable sources has fallen steeply along with the drop in global oil prices. For example, in 2013, oil tax revenues brought in 9.58 billion, or 21% of the total Provincial budget, whereas in 2018 it had fallen to just 5.43 billion, or 11% of the Provincial budget.
In the spring of 2020, Alberta\'s economy suffered from the economic fallout of both the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Russia--Saudi Arabia oil price war.\"
\_\_TOC\_\_
## Data
Year Nominal GDP (in bil. CA-Dollar) GDP per capita (in CA-Dollar) Unemployment (in %)
------ --------------------------------- ------------------------------- ---------------------
2019 334.5 77,239 6.8%
2018 334.3 78,311 6.9%
2017 328 77,765 8.7%
2016 314.6 75,447 8.6%
2015 326.5 79,324 4.6%
2014 338.3 83,946 4.7%
2013 319.5 81,495 4.5%
2012 302.1 78,979 5.0%
2011 290.5 77,375 5.9%
2010 272.2 73,523 6.6%
2009 258.9 71,156 4.9%
2008 273.5 77,068 3.7%
2007 270 77,748 3.6%
2006 264.8 78,533 3.8%
2005 248.6 75,867 4.5%
2004 237.7 74,064 4.9%
2003 224.7 71,218 5.4%
2002 216.8 70,114 4.9%
2001 211.6 69,882 5.2%
2000 207.8 69,860 5.0%
1999 196 66,984 5.9%
1998 193.2 67,569 5.3%
1997 184.3 65,832 6.4%
| 1,016 |
Economy of Alberta
| 0 |
1,841 |
## Current overview {#current_overview}
According to ATB Financial\'s Vice President and Chief Economist---Todd Hirsch, who spoke during an April 2, 2020, webinar hosted by the Calgary Chamber of Commerce, the COVID-19 pandemic in Alberta and its \"economic fallout will permanently reshape our economy.\" Hirsch said that he expects that the resulting contraction in Alberta\'s economy will be the \"worst\...Alberta has ever seen.\"
The global price of oil decreased dramatically because of the combination of COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 Russia--Saudi Arabia oil price war. In March 2020, the United States benchmark crude oil EWest Texas Intermediate (WTI)---upon which Alberta\'s benchmark crude oil Western Canadian Select (WCS) price is based---dropped to an historical below of US\$20 a barrel. The price of WCS bitumen-blend crude was US\$3.82 per barrel by the end of March. In 2018, the low price of heavy oil negatively impacted Alberta\'s economic growth.
In November 2018, the price of Western Canadian Select (WCS), the benchmark for Canadian heavy crude, hit its record low of less than US\$14 a barrel, as a \"surge of production met limited pipeline space causing bottlenecks.\" Previously, from 2008 through 2018, WCS had sold at an average discount of US\$17 against West Texas Intermediate (WTI)---the U.S. crude oil benchmark, but by the fall of 2018, the differential between WCS and WTI reached a record of over US\$50 per barrel. In response, then Premier Rachel Notley made a December 2 announcement of a mandatory cut of 8.7% in Alberta\'s oil production. By December 12, after the announcement of the government\'s \"mandated oil output curtailment\", the price of WCS rose c. 70% to c. US\$41 a barrel with the WTI differential falling from US50 to c. US\$11., according to the *Financial Post*. The WCS price rose to US\$28.60 by January 2019, as the international price of oil had begun to recover from the December \"sharp downturn\" caused by the ongoing China--U.S. trade war In March 2019, the differential of WTI over WCS decreased to \$US9.94 as the price of WTI dropped to US\$58.15 a barrel, which is 7.5% lower than it was in March 2018, while the price of WCS increased to US\$48.21 a barrel which is 35.7% higher than in March 2018. According to TD Economics\' September 2019 report, the government\'s \"mandated oil output curtailment\", has resulted in a sustained rebound in WCS prices. However, investment and spending were low in the province. The loss of 14, 000 of the full-time jobs out of 2,344,000 in Alberta in July 2019, represented the \"largest decline\" in employment in Canada for that month, according to Statistics Canada.
In 1985, Alberta\'s energy industry accounted for 36.1% of the provinces \$66.8 billion GDP. In 2006, the mining, oil and gas extraction industry accounted for 29.1% of GDP; by 2012 it was 23.3%; in 2013, it was 24.6% of Alberta\'s \$331.9 billion GDP, and in 2016, the mining, oil and gas extraction industry accounted for about 27.9% of Alberta\'s GDP.
By comparison, \"In 2017, the federal, provincial and territorial governments spent some \$724 billion on programs and more than \$58 billion on interest payments on their public debt, which, combined, amounted to about 36 percent of Canada's gross domestic product (GDP). Their combined borrowing that year was \$27 billion, and their net financial debt at year-end stood at around \$1.2 trillion, about 54 percent of GDP.\"
In his July 2019 *CBC News* article, economist Trevor Tombe said that prior to the 2014 recession, Albertans had experienced boom years from 2010 to 2014, with workers earnings reaching exceptional highs. The recession, which \"ended over two years ago\" in 2017, was \"long and deep\". By 2019---five years later---the province was still in recovery. Overall, there were approximately 35,000 jobs lost in mining, oil and gas alone. By 2019, the slow recovery and low earnings growth have resulted in workers getting \"fewer hours, fewer jobs and, in some cases, lower wages\". Tombe said that from 2014 to 2016, Alberta earned CDN\$75 billion less per year with the \"total incomes of workers, business, and government combined \[falling\] by nearly 20 per cent\". Tombes said that relative to Alberta\'s \"growth path prior to the recession\" Alberta\'s economy is \"down \$100 billion per year\", compared to what was anticipated. Tombes said that the \"boom years that ended in 2014 were the outliers\" and the lower earnings in 2019 reflect a \"natural adjustment that\'s moving Alberta to a more normal and balanced labour market.\" While earnings are lower, because of inflation, prices have increased in Alberta by 18% since 2011. \"The \$1,183 per week a typical worker earns today goes about as far as \$1,000 did nearly a decade ago.\", according to Tombe. In spite of the typical worker in Alberta earns \$1,183 per week compared to Saskatchewan, where the typical worker earns \$1,070 per week. The weekly income a typical worker in all the other Canadian provinces and territories is less than that.
Since 2014, sectors that offered high-wage employment of \$30 and above, saw about 100,000 jobs disappear---\"construction (down more than 45,000 jobs), mining, oil and gas (down nearly 35,000), and professional services (down 18,000).\"
## Alberta\'s deficit {#albertas_deficit}
Alberta\'s net debt was \$27.5 billion by March 2019, which represents the end of the 2018-19 fiscal year (FY). By November 2018, Alberta\'s government expenditures were \$55 billion while the revenue was about \$48 billion, according to a report by the University of Calgary\'s School of Public Policy (SPP) economist, Trevor Tombe. Capital investment amounted to \$4.3 billion. The provincial government employs more than \"210,000 full-time equivalent workers across hundreds of departments, boards and other entities.\" Tombe, cited a \$8.3 billion deficit in his November report, prior to the release in February 2019 of the corrected deficit figures, which was \"\$1.9 billion less in 2018-19 than originally expected\", ---\$6.9-billion deficit instead of the original \$8.8-billion\".
Alberta\'s current deficit is \"unusual for the province\", says Tombe in 2018. During the financial crisis, Alberta\'s \"net asset position equivalent to 15 per cent of GDP\"−it \"owned more financial assets than it owed in debt.\"
In 2009 Alberta had \$31.7 billion in financial assets.
BC Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba Ontario Quebec New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Newfoundland
------- --------- -------------- ---------- --------- -------- --------------- ------------- ---------------------- -------------- --
15.5% 8.7% 15.4% 34.2% 37.6% 43% 40% 34.2 33% 47.3%
: Net government debt to GDP by province March 2019
| 1,059 |
Economy of Alberta
| 1 |
1,841 |
## Alberta\'s credit rating {#albertas_credit_rating}
On December 3, 2019, Moody\'s downgraded Alberta\'s credit rating from Aa2 stable from Aa1 negative and \"downgraded the long-term debt ratings of the Alberta Capital Finance Authority and the long-term issuer rating of ATB Financial to Aa2 from Aa1.\" The agency said that there is a \"structural weakness in the provincial economy that remains concentrated and dependent on non-renewable resources \... and remains pressured by a lack of sufficient pipeline capacity to transport oil efficiently with no near-term expectation of a significant rebound in oil-related investments\...Alberta\'s oil and gas sector is carbon-intensive and Alberta\'s greenhouse gas emissions are the highest among provinces. Alberta is also susceptible to natural disasters including wildfires and floods which could lead to significant mitigation costs by the province.\"
## Alberta\'s real per capita GDP {#albertas_real_per_capita_gdp}
In 2006 Alberta\'s per capita GDP was higher than all US states, and one of the highest figures in the world. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. In 2007, Alberta\'s per capita GDP in 2007 was C\$74,825 (approx. US\$75,000)---by far the highest of any Canadian province---61% higher than the Canadian average of C\$46,441 and more than twice that of all the Maritime provinces. In 2017, Alberta\'s real per capita GDP---the economic output per person---was \$71,092, compared to the Canadian average of \$47,417. Alberta\'s A grade on its income per capita was based on the fact that it was almost \"identical\" to that of the \"top peer country\" in 2016, Ireland.
In 2017, Alberta\'s real per capita GDP---the economic output per person---was \$71,092 compared to the Canadian average output per person of \$47, 417 and Prince Edward Island at \$32,123 per person. Since at least 1997, Alberta\'s per capita GDP has been higher than that of any other province. In 2014, Alberta\'s reached its highest gap ever---\$30,069---between its real capita GDP and the Canadian average.
According to the Conference Board of Canada, in 2016 Alberta earned an \"A grade with income per capita almost identical to the top peer country, Ireland.\" In 2016 income per capita in Alberta was \$59,259.
1981 1988 1991 1997 2000 2003 2005 2007 2009 2010 2014 2016
-------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- -------- --------
42,441 45,995 45,393 53,748 57,106 57,646 61,163 62,518 57,321 59,254 66,031 59,249
: Alberta Income per capita
| 396 |
Economy of Alberta
| 2 |
1,841 |
## Alberta\'s GDP compared to other provinces {#albertas_gdp_compared_to_other_provinces}
A table listing annual \"[\"Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by industry, provinces and territories (x 1,000,000).\"](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610040201) from 2014 through 2018 with value chained to 2012 dollars.
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th scope="col"><p>Province<br />
or<br />
<em>Territory</em></p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2014)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2015)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2016)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2017)</p></th>
<th scope="col"><p>GDP<br />
(million<br />
CAD, 2018) |-|- align=right</p></th>
<th style="text-align: left;"></th>
<th><p>219,060.9</p></th>
<th><p>224,153.4</p></th>
<th><p>231,509.9</p></th>
<th><p>240,657.9</p></th>
<th><p>246,506.3</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>338,262.6</p></td>
<td><p>326,476.7</p></td>
<td><p>313,241.5</p></td>
<td><p>327,596.2</p></td>
<td><p>335,095.6</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>80,175.7</p></td>
<td><p>79,574.2</p></td>
<td><p>79,364.4</p></td>
<td><p>81,179.0</p></td>
<td><p>82,502.7</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>58,276.3</p></td>
<td><p>59,082.5</p></td>
<td><p>60,066.2</p></td>
<td><p>61,941.2</p></td>
<td><p>62,723.1</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>659,861.2</p></td>
<td><p>677,384.0</p></td>
<td><p>693,900.4</p></td>
<td><p>712,984.3</p></td>
<td><p>728,363.7</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>338,319.0</p></td>
<td><p>341,688.0</p></td>
<td><p>346,713.7</p></td>
<td><p>356,677.9</p></td>
<td><p>365,614.4</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>29,039.6</p></td>
<td><p>29,275.7</p></td>
<td><p>29,686.3</p></td>
<td><p>30,271.8</p></td>
<td><p>30,295.3</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>5,205.6</p></td>
<td><p>5,280.7</p></td>
<td><p>5,372.2</p></td>
<td><p>5,553.3</p></td>
<td><p>5,700.0</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>34,747.2</p></td>
<td><p>35,013.4</p></td>
<td><p>35,549.3</p></td>
<td><p>36,075.4</p></td>
<td><p>36,518.2</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>31,143.3</p></td>
<td><p>30,806.0</p></td>
<td><p>31,334.5</p></td>
<td><p>31,610.6</p></td>
<td><p>30,757.9</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>2,510.9</p></td>
<td><p>2,320.2</p></td>
<td><p>2,482.5</p></td>
<td><p>2,554.5</p></td>
<td><p>2,626.1</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>4,574.6</p></td>
<td><p>4,621.3</p></td>
<td><p>4,679.8</p></td>
<td><p>4,861.3</p></td>
<td><p>4,954.7</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td><p>2,363.6</p></td>
<td><p>2,353.0</p></td>
<td><p>2,434.3</p></td>
<td><p>2,685.3</p></td>
<td><p>2,955.0</p></td>
<td style="text-align: left;"></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Source: Statistics Canada: GDP (totals),
| 329 |
Economy of Alberta
| 3 |
1,841 |
## Economic geography {#economic_geography}
`{{see also|Geography of Alberta|List of regions of Alberta}}`{=mediawiki}
Alberta has a small internal market, and it is relatively distant from major world markets, despite good transportation links to the rest of Canada and to the United States to the south. Alberta is located in the northwestern quadrant of North America, in a region of low population density called the Interior Plains. Alberta is landlocked, and separated by a series of mountain ranges from the nearest outlets to the Pacific Ocean, and by the Canadian Shield from ports on the Lakehead or Hudson Bay. From these ports to major populations centres and markets in Europe or Asia is several thousands of kilometers. The largest population clusters of North America (the Boston -- Washington, San Francisco - San Diego, Chicago -- Pittsburgh, and Quebec City -- Windsor Corridors) are all thousands of kilometers away from Alberta. Partly for this reason, Alberta has never developed a large presence in the industries that have traditionally started industrialization in other places (notably the original Industrial Revolution in Great Britain) but which require large labour forces, and large internal markets or easy transportation to export markets, namely textiles, metallurgy, or transportation-related manufacturing (automotives, ships, or train cars).
Agriculture has been a key industry since the 1870s. The climate is dry, temperate, and continental, with extreme variations between seasons. Productive soils are found in most of the southern half of the province (excluding the mountains), and in certain parts of the north. Agriculture on a large scale is practiced further north in Alberta than anywhere else in North America, extending into the Peace River country above the 55th parallel north. Generally, however, northern Alberta (and areas along the Alberta Rockies) is forested land and logging is more important than agriculture there. Agriculture is divided into primarily field crops in the east, livestock in the west, and a mixture in between and in the parkland belt in the near north.
Conventional oil and gas fields are found throughout the province on an axis running from the northwest to the southeast. Oil sands are found in the northeast, especially around Fort McMurray (the Athabasca Oil Sands).
Because of its (relatively) economically isolated location, Alberta relies heavily on transportation links with the rest of the world. Alberta\'s historical development has been largely influenced by the development of new transportation infrastructure, (see \"trends\" below). Alberta is now served by two major transcontinental railways (CN and CP), by three major highway connections to the Pacific (the Trans-Canada via Kicking Horse Pass, the Yellowhead via Yellowhead Pass and the Crowsnest via Crowsnest Pass), and one to the United States (Interstate 15), as well as two international airports (Calgary and Edmonton). Also, Alberta is connected to the TransCanada pipeline system (natural gas) to Eastern Canada, the Northern Border Pipeline (gas), Alliance Pipeline (gas) and Enbridge Pipeline System (oil) to the Eastern United States, the Gas Transmission Northwest and Northwest Pipeline (gas) to the Western United States, and the McNeill HVDC Back-to-back station (electric power) to Saskatchewan.
| 505 |
Economy of Alberta
| 4 |
1,841 |
## Economic geography {#economic_geography}
### Economic regions and cities {#economic_regions_and_cities}
Since the days of early agricultural settlement, the majority of Alberta\'s population has been concentrated in the parkland belt (mixed forest-grassland), a boomerang-shaped strip of land extending along the North Saskatchewan River from Lloydminster to Edmonton and then along the Rocky Mountain foothills south to Calgary. This area is slightly more humid and treed than the drier prairie (grassland) region called Palliser\'s Triangle to its south, and large areas of the south (the \"Special Areas\") were depopulated during the droughts of the 1920s and 30s. The chernozem (black soil) of the parkland region is more agriculturally productive than the red and grey soils to the south. Urban development has also been most advanced in the parkland belt. Edmonton and Red Deer are parkland cities, while Calgary is on the parkland-prairie fringe. Lethbridge and Medicine Hat are prairie cities. Grande Prairie lies in the Peace River Country a parkland region (with isolated patches of prairie, hence the name) in the northwest isolated from the rest of the parkland by the forested Swan Hills. Fort McMurray is the only urbanized population centre in the boreal forest which covers much of the northern half of the province.
#### Calgary and Edmonton {#calgary_and_edmonton}
The Calgary and Edmonton regions, by far the province\'s two largest metropolitan regions, account for the majority of the province\'s population. They are relatively close to each other by the standards of Western Canada and distant from other metropolitan regions such as Vancouver or Winnipeg. This has produced a history of political and economic rivalry and comparison but also economic integration that has created an urbanized corridor between the two cities.
The economic profile of the two regions is slightly different. Both cities are mature service economies built on a base of resource extraction in their hinterlands. However, Calgary is predominant in hosting the regional and national headquarters of oil and gas exploration and drilling companies. Edmonton skews much more towards governments, universities and hospitals as large employers, while Edmonton\'s suburban fringes (e.g. Fort Saskatchewan, Nisku, Strathcona County (Refinery Row), Leduc, Beaumont, Acheson) are home to most of the province\'s manufacturing (much of it related to oil and gas).
##### Calgary-Edmonton Corridor {#calgary_edmonton_corridor}
The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. Measured from north to south, the region covers a distance of roughly 400 km. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta\'s population). It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor was the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S. level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian-style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The study found GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time.
##### Calgary--Edmonton rivalry {#calgaryedmonton_rivalry}
Seeing Calgary and Edmonton as part of a single economic region as the TD study did in 2003 was novel. The more traditional view had been to see the two cities as economic rivals. For example, in the 1980 both cities claimed to be the \"Oil Capital of Canada\".
| 544 |
Economy of Alberta
| 5 |
1,841 |
## Background
`{{See also|History of Alberta|History of the petroleum industry in Canada}}`{=mediawiki}
Alberta has always been an export-oriented economy. In line with Harold Innis\' \"Staples Thesis\", the economy has changed substantially as different export commodities have risen or fallen in importance. In sequence, the most important products have been: fur, wheat and beef, and oil and gas.
The development of transportation in Alberta has been crucial to its historical economic development. The North American fur trade relied on birch-bark canoes, York boats, and Red River carts on age-old Native trails and buffalo trails to move furs out of, and European trade goods into, the region. Immigration into the province was eased tremendously by the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway\'s transcontinental line across southern Alberta in 1880s. Commercial farming became viable in the area once the grain trade had developed technologies to handle the bulk export of grain, especially hopper cars and grain elevators. Oil and gas exports have been possible because of increasing pipeline technology.
Prior to the 1950s, Alberta was a primarily agricultural economy, based on the export of wheat, beef, and a few other agricultural products. The health of economy was closely bound up with the price of wheat.
In 1947 a major oil field was discovered near Edmonton. It was not the first petroleum find in Alberta, but it was large and spawned an industry that significantly altered the economy of the province (and coincided with growing American demand for energy). Since that time, Alberta\'s economic fortunes have largely tracked the price of oil, and increasingly natural gas prices. When oil prices spiked during the 1967 Oil Embargo, 1973 oil crisis, and 1979 energy crisis, Alberta\'s economy boomed. However, during the 1980s oil glut Alberta\'s economy suffered. Alberta boomed once again during the 2003-2008 oil price spike. In July 2008 the price of oil peaked and began to decline, and Alberta\'s economy soon followed suit, with unemployment doubling within a year. By 2009 with natural gas prices at a long-term low, Alberta\'s economy was in poor health compared to before, although still relatively better than many other comparable jurisdictions. By 2012 natural gas prices were at a ten-year low and the Canadian dollar was highly valued compared to the U.S. dollar, but then oil prices recovered until June 2014.
The spin-offs from petroleum allowed Alberta to develop many other industries. Oilpatch-related manufacturing is an obvious example, but financial services and government services have also benefited from oil money.
A comparison of the development of Alberta\'s less oil and gas-endowed neighbours, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, reveals the role petroleum has played. Alberta was the least-populous of the three Prairie Provinces in the early 20th century, but by 2009, Alberta\'s population was 3,632,483, approximately three times as much as either Saskatchewan (1,023,810) or Manitoba (1,213,815).
| 466 |
Economy of Alberta
| 6 |
1,841 |
## Employment
Alberta\'s economy is a highly developed one in which most people work in services such as healthcare, government, or retail. Primary industries are also of great importance, however.
By March 2016 the unemployment rate in Alberta rose to 7.9%--- its \"highest level since April 1995 and the first time the province's rate has surpassed the national average since December 1988.\" There were 21,200 fewer jobs than February 2015. The unemployment rate was expected to average 7.4% in 2016. The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) claimed that Alberta lost 35,000 jobs in 2015--25,000 from the oil services sector and 10,000 from exploration and production. Full-time employment increased by 10,000 in February 2016 after falling 20,000 in both December 2015 and January 2016. The natural resources industry lost 7,400 jobs in February. \"Year-over-year (y/y), the goods sector lost 56,000 jobs, while the services sector gained 34,800.\" In 2015 Alberta\'s population increased by 3,900. While Alberta had a reprieve in job loss in February 2016---up 1,400 jobs after losing jobs in October, November, December 2015 and January 2016---Ontario lost 11,200 jobs, Saskatchewan lost 7,800 jobs and New Brunswick lost 5,700 jobs.
The unemployment rate in spring 2019 in Alberta was 6.7% with 21,000 jobs added in April; in Calgary it was 7.4%, in Edmonton it was 6.9%, in Northern Alberta it was 11.2%, and in Southern Alberta it was 7.8%. By July 2019, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate had increased to 7.0%, which represented an increase of 0.3% from the previous year. The unemployment rate in Alberta peaked in November 2016 at 9.1%. Its lowest point in a ten-year period from July 2009 to July 2019 was in September 2013 at 4.3%.
By August 2019, the employment number in Alberta was 2,344,000, following the loss of 14,000 full-time jobs in July, which represented that the \"largest decline\" in Canada according to Statistics Canada.
Employment by industry, Alberta -- seasonally adjusted (000s)
Industries August 2019 July 2019 August 2018
------------------------------------------------- ------------- ----------- -------------
All industries 2,344.3 2,343.7 2,340.2
Goods-producing sector 589.6 595.6 602.1
Agriculture 49.9 50.7 48.5
Forestry, fishing, mining, oil and gas 138.3 144.3 154.4
Utilities 24.5 24.1 23.7
Construction 241.9 242.1 246.5
Manufacturing 134.9 134.5 129.0
Services-Producing Sector 1,754.8 1,748.1 1,738.1
Trade 339.3 340.0 337.1
Transportation and Warehousing 139.4 140.0 138.3
Finance, Insurance, Real Estate and Leasing 105.7 107.2 102.3
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 187.2 185.4 181.5
Business, Building and Other Support Services 83.2 84.4 88.6
Educational Services 157.2 157.7 160.7
Health Care and Social Assistance 292.4 290.6 278.8
Information, Culture and Recreation 79.0 74.3 78.7
Accommodation and Food Services 140.4 136.7 146.6
Other Services 115.1 118.2 116.7
Public Administration 116.0 113.6 108.8
### Extraction industries {#extraction_industries}
According to the Government of Alberta, the \"mining and oil and gas extraction industry accounted for 6.1% of total employment in Alberta in 2017\". By April 2019, there were about 145,100 people working directly with the oil and gas industry. In 2013, there were 171,200 people employed in the mining and oil and gas extraction industry.
In 2007 there were 146,900 people working in the mining and oil and gas extraction industry.
- Oil and Gas Extraction industry = 69,900
- Support Activities for Mining & Oil & Gas Extraction (primarily oil and gas exploration and drilling) = 71,700
- Mining other than oil and gas (mainly coal and mineral mining & quarrying) = 5,100
### Largest employers of Alberta {#largest_employers_of_alberta}
According to *Alberta Venture* magazine\'s list of the 50 largest employers in the province, the largest employers are:
Rank (2012) Rank (2010) Rank (2007) Employer Industry 2019 Employees (Total) 2012 Employees (Total) 2010 Employees (Total) 2007 Employees (Total) Head office Description Notes
------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------------------- ----------------------------- ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------------------ ------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 \* Alberta Health Services Healthcare 102,700 99,400 92,200 see note Edmonton Provincial public health authority Created in 2008 by merging nine separate provincial health authorities.
2 2 4\. Canada Safeway Limited Wholesale and Retail Trade 30,000 30,000 34,318 Calgary Food and drug retailer subsidiary of Sobeys Inc. since 2014, before that subsidiary of American chain
3 6 n/a Agrium Inc. Agri-business 15,200 (2016) 14,800 11,153 n/a Calgary Wholesale producer, distributor and retailer of agricultural products and services in North and South America n/a = not listed in 2007
4 7 8 University of Alberta Education 14,500 10,800 11,000 Edmonton Publicly funded accredited university
5 4 29 Canadian Pacific Railway Transportation 12,695 14,169 14,970 15,232 Calgary Railway and inter-modal transportation services
6 5 31 Suncor Energy Petroleum Resource Industry \~12,500 13,026 12,978 5,800 Calgary Petroleum extraction, refining, and retail Merged with Petro-Canada in 2009
7 9 35 Shaw Communications Communications 12,500 10,000 8,985 Calgary Provider of digital telecommunications services \[cable television / internet / telephony\] and community television production facilities
8 8 15 Flint Energy Services Ltd. Energy 11,211 10,280 6,169 Calgary Energy / Construction
9 11 n/a Stantec Inc. Professional Services 11,100 9,300 n/a Edmonton Architecture/Engineering/Construction n/a = not listed in 2007
10 12 9 Calgary Board of Education Public Education 14,000 9,106 9,278 10,972 Calgary Municipal K-12 Public Education School Board
| 848 |
Economy of Alberta
| 7 |
1,841 |
## Sectors
### Oil and gas extraction industries {#oil_and_gas_extraction_industries}
`{{See also|Petroleum production in Canada|Natural gas in Canada}}`{=mediawiki}
In 2018, Alberta\'s energy sector contributed over \$71.5 billion to Canada\'s nominal gross domestic product. In 2006, it accounted for 29.1% of Alberta\'s GDP; by 2012 it was 23.3%; in 2013, it was 24.6%, and in 2016 it was 27.9%. According to Statistics Canada, in May 2018, the oil and gas extraction industry reached its highest proportion of Canada\'s national GDP since 1985, exceeding 7% and \"surpass\[ing\] banking and insurance\". with extraction of non-conventional oil from the oilsands reaching an \"impressive\", all-time high in May 2018. With conventional oil extraction \"climbed up to the highs from 2007\", the demand for Canadian oil was strong in May.
Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and gas products in the country. Alberta is the world\'s 2nd largest exporter of natural gas and the 4th largest producer. Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton\'s oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. Since the early 1940s, Alberta had supplied oil and gas to the rest of Canada and the United States. The Athabasca River region produces oil for internal and external use. The Athabasca Oil Sands contain the largest proven reserves of oil in the world outside Saudi Arabia.
The Athabasca Oil Sands (sometimes known as the Athabasca Tar sands) have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 Toilbbl. With the development of new extraction methods such as steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), which was developed in Alberta, bitumen and synthetic crude oil can be produced at costs close to those of conventional crude. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. With current technology and at current prices, about 315 Goilbbl of bitumen are recoverable. Fort McMurray, one of Canada\'s fastest growing cities, has grown enormously in recent years because of the large corporations which have taken on the task of oil production. As of late 2006 there were over \$100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta.
Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands was the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss.
Alberta\'s economy was negatively impacted by the 2015-2016 oil glut with a record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage, with global crude oil collapsing at near ten-year low prices. The United States doubled its 2008 production levels mainly due to substantial improvements in shale \"fracking\" technology, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a marked slowdown in economic growth and crude oil imports.
Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry (2017)
Alberta Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction Industry
------------------- ----------- --------------------------------------------
Employment 2,286,900 140,300
Employment Share N/A 6.1%
Unemployment 194,700 8,800
Unemployment rate 7.8% 5.9%
- Data Source: Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey, CANSIM Table 282--0008, 2017 \"Employment share is obtained by dividing the number of employment in this industry by total employment in Alberta.\"
| 587 |
Economy of Alberta
| 8 |
1,841 |
## Sectors
### Oil and gas extraction industries {#oil_and_gas_extraction_industries}
#### Natural gas {#natural_gas}
Natural gas has been found at several points, and in 1999, the production of natural gas liquids (ethane, propane, and butanes) totalled 172.8 Moilbbl, valued at \$2.27 billion. Alberta also provides 13% of all the natural gas used in the United States.
Notable gas reserves were discovered in the 1883 near Medicine Hat. The town of Medicine Hat began using gas for lighting the town, and supplying light and fuel for the people, and a number of industries using the gas for manufacturing.
One of North America\'s benchmarks is Alberta gas-trading price---the AECO \"C\" spot price.
In 2018, 69% of the marketable natural gas in Canada was produced in Alberta. Forty nine per cent of Alberta\'s natural gas production is consumed in Alberta. In Alberta, the average household uses 135 GJ of natural gas annually. Domestic demand for natural gas is divided across sectors, with the highest demand---83% coming from \"industrial, electrical generation, transportation and other sectors,\" and 17 percent going towards residential and commercial sectors. Of the provinces, Alberta is the largest consumer of natural gas at 3.9 billion cubic feet per day.
By August 2019, the *Financial Post* said that \"AECO daily and monthly natural gas prices\" were at the lowest they have been since 1992. Canada\'s largest natural gas producer, Canadian Natural Resources Ltd., announced in early August that it had \"shut in gas production of 27,000 million cubic feet per day because of depressed prices. Previously natural gas pipeline drilled in the southern Alberta and shipped to markets in Eastern Canada. By 2019, the entire natural gas industry had was primarily operating in northwestern Alberta and northeastern B.C., which resulted in strained infrastructure. New systems will not be complete until 2021 or 2023. In September 25, 2017 Alberta\'s benchmark AECO natural gas prices fell into \"negative territory -- \"meaning producers have had to pay customers to take their gas\". It happened again in early October with the price per gigajoule dropping to -7 cents. TransCanada (now TC Energy Corp)---which \"owns and operates Alberta\'s \"largest natural gas gathering and transmission system, interrupted its pipeline service in the fall of 2017 to complete field maintenance on the Alberta system. In July 2018, RS Energy Group\'s energy analyst Samir Kayande, said that faced with a glut of natural gas across North America, the continental market price was \$3 per gigajoule. Alberta is \"awash\" with natural gas but faces pipeline bottlenecks. CEOs of nine Alberta natural gas producers requested the Kenney government to mandate production cuts to deal with the crisis. On June 30, the AECO price of gas dropped to 11 cents per gigajoule, because of maintenance issues with the pipeline giant TC Energy Corp.
In 2003 Alberta produced 4.97 Tcuft of marketable natural gas. That year, 62% of Alberta\'s natural gas was shipped to the United States, 24% was used within Alberta, and 14% was used in the rest of Canada. In 2006, Alberta consumed 1.45 Tcuft of natural gas. The rest was exported across Canada and to the United States. Royalties to Alberta from natural gas and its byproducts are larger than royalties from crude oil and bitumen. In 2006, there were 13,473 successful natural gas wells drilled in Alberta: 12,029 conventional gas wells and 1,444 coalbed methane wells. There may be up to 500 Tcuft of coalbed methane in Alberta, although it is unknown how much of this gas might be recoverable. Alberta has one of the most extensive natural gas systems in the world as part of its energy infrastructure, with 39000 km of energy related pipelines.
### Coal
`{{See also|Coal in Alberta}}`{=mediawiki} Coal has been mined in Alberta since the late 19th century. Over 1800 mines have operated in Alberta since then.
The coal industry was vital to the early development of several communities, especially those in the foothills and along deep river valleys where coal was close to the surface.
Alberta is still a major coal producer, every two weeks Alberta produces enough coal to fill the Sky Dome in Toronto.
Much of that coal is burned in Alberta for electricity generation. By 2008, Alberta used over 25 million tonnes of coal annually to generate electricity. However, Alberta is set to retire coal power by 2023, ahead of 2030 provincial deadline.
Alberta has vast coal resources and 70 per cent of Canada\'s coal reserves are located in Alberta. This amounts to 33.6 Gigatonnes.
Vast beds of coal are found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds, and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures in England is of excellent quality. In the valley of the Bow River, alongside the Canadian Pacific Railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal are still worked. The usual coal deposits of the area of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal. These are largely worked at Lethbridge in southern Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the province. Many other parts of the province have pits for private use.
| 847 |
Economy of Alberta
| 9 |
1,841 |
## Sectors
### Electricity
, Alberta\'s generating capacity was 16,261 MW, and Alberta has about 26000 km of transmission lines.
Alberta has 1491 megawatts of wind power capacity.
Production of electricity in Alberta in 2016 by source:
Generation GWh Share by Fuel
------------- -------- ---------------
Coal 42,227 50.2%
Natural Gas 33,184 39.4%
Hydro 1,773 2.1%
Wind 4,408 5.2%
Biomass 2,201 2.6%
Others 338 0.4%
Total 84,132 100%
Alberta has added 9,000 MW of new supply since 1998.
Peak for power use in one day was set on July 9, 2015 -- 10,520 MW.
### Mineral mining {#mineral_mining}
Building stones mined in Alberta include Rundle stone, and Paskapoo sandstone.
Diamonds were first found in Alberta in 1958, and many stones have been found since, although to date no large-scale mines have been developed.
### Manufacturing
The Edmonton area, and in particular Nisku is a major centre for manufacturing oil and gas related equipment. As well Edmonton\'s Refinery Row is home to a petrochemical industry.
According to a 2016 Statistics Canada report Alberta\'s manufacturing sales year-over-year sales fell 13.2 per cent, with a loss of almost four per cent from December to January. Alberta\'s economy continued to shrink because of the collapse of the oil and gas sector. The petroleum and coal product manufacturing industry is now third--- behind food and chemicals.
### Biotechnology
Several companies and services in the biotech sector are clustered around the University of Alberta, for example ColdFX.
### Food processing {#food_processing}
Owing to the strength of agriculture, food processing was once a major part of the economies of Edmonton and Calgary, but this sector has increasingly moved to smaller centres such as Brooks, the home of XL Foods, responsible for one third of Canada\'s beef processing in 2011.
### Transportation
Edmonton is a major distribution centre for northern communities, hence the nickname \"Gateway to the North\". Edmonton is one of CN Rail\'s most important hubs. Since 1996, Canadian Pacific Railway has its headquarters in downtown Calgary.
WestJet, Canada\'s second largest air carrier, is headquartered in Calgary, by Calgary International Airport, which serves as the airline\'s primary hub. Prior to its dissolution, Canadian Airlines was headquartered in Calgary by the airport. Prior to its dissolution, Air Canada subsidiary Zip was headquartered in Calgary.
| 375 |
Economy of Alberta
| 10 |
1,841 |
## Sectors
### Agriculture and forestry {#agriculture_and_forestry}
#### Agriculture
`{{See also|Agriculture in Canada}}`{=mediawiki} In the past, cattle, horses, and sheep were reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. Currently Alberta produces cattle valued at over \$3.3 billion, as well as other livestock in lesser quantities. In this region irrigation is widely used. Wheat, accounting for almost half of the \$2 billion agricultural economy, is supplemented by canola, barley, rye, sugar beets, and other mixed farming. In 2011, Alberta producers seeded an estimated total of 17900000000 acres to spring wheat, durum, barley, oats, mixed grains, triticale, canola and dry peas. Of the total seeded area, 94 per cent was harvested as grains and oilseeds and six per cent as greenfeed and silage. Saudi Arabia is a major export target especially for wheat and processed potato products. SA having decided to phase out their own forage and cereal production, Alberta expects this to be an opportunity to fill livestock feed demand in the kingdom.
Agriculture has a significant position in the province\'s economy. Over three million cattle are residents of the province at one time or another, and Albertan beef has a healthy worldwide market. Although beef could also be a major export to Saudi Arabia, as with wheat and potatoes above, market access is lacking at the moment. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains buffalo (bison) for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and lamb are also raised.
Wheat and canola are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production, with other grains also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points.
Clubroot (*Plasmodiophora brassicae*) is a costly disease of *Brassicaceae* here including canola. In several experiments by Peng *et al.*, out of fungicides, biofungicides, inoculation with beneficial microbes, cultivar resistance, and crop rotation, only genetic resistance combined with more than two years rotation worked `{{endash}}`{=mediawiki} *susceptible* cultivars rotated with other crops did not produce enough improvement.
Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need.
#### Forestry
The vast northern forest reserves of softwood allow Alberta to produce large quantities of lumber, oriented strand board (OSB) and plywood, and several plants in northern Alberta supply North America and the Pacific Rim nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint.
In 1999, lumber products from Alberta were valued at \$4.1 billion of which 72% were exported around the world. Since forests cover approximately 59% of the province\'s land area, the government allows about 23.3 e6m3 to be harvested annually from the forests on public lands.
| 551 |
Economy of Alberta
| 11 |
1,841 |
## Sectors
### Services
Despite the high profile of the extractive industries, Alberta has a mature economy and most people work in services. In 2014 there were 1,635.8 thousand people employed in the services-producing sector. Since then, the number has steadily increased to 1754.8 thousand jobs by August 2019, which is an increase of 16.7 thousand jobs from August 2018 This includes wholesale and retail trade; transportation and warehousing; finance, insurance, real estate, rental and leasing; professional, scientific and technical services; business, building and other support services; educational services; health care and social assistance; information, culture and recreation; accommodation and food services; other services (except public administration) and public administration.
#### Finance
The TSX Venture Exchange is headquartered in Calgary. The city has the second highest number of corporate head offices in Canada after Toronto, and the financial services industry in Calgary has developed to support them. All major banks including the Big Five maintain corporate offices in Calgary, along with smaller banks such as Equitable Group. Recently there has also been a number of fintech companies founded in Calgary such as the National Digital Asset Exchange and Neo Financial, founded by the Skip-the-Dishes team.
One of Canada\'s largest accounting firms, MNP LLP, is also headquartered in Calgary.
Edmonton hosts the headquarters of the only major Canadian banks west of Toronto: Canadian Western Bank, and ATB Financial, as well as the only province-wide credit union, Servus Credit Union.
#### Government
Despite Alberta\'s reputation as a \"small government\" province, many health care and education professionals are lured to Alberta from other provinces by the higher wages the Alberta government is able to offer because of oil revenues. In 2014 the median household income in Alberta was \$100,000 with the average weekly wage at \$1,163---23 per cent higher than the Canadian national average.
In their May 2018 report co-authored by C. D. Howe Institute\'s President and CEO, William B.P. Robson, evaluating \"the budgets, estimates and public accounts\" of 2017/18 fiscal year that were tabled by senior governments in the Canadian provinces and the federal government in terms of reporting financial information, appropriately, with transparency, and in a timely fashion, Alberta and New Brunswick ranked highest. The report also said that, prior to 2016, Alberta had scored poorly in comparison with other provinces, because of \"confusing array of \"operating,\" \"saving\" and \"capital\" accounts that were not Public Sector Accounting Standards (PSAS) consistent.\" but since 2016, Alberta has received A-plus grades. The report said that Alberta and New Brunswick in FY2017 provided \"straightforward reconciliations of results with budget intentions, their auditors record no reservations, and their budgets and public accounts are timely.\"
### Technology
Alberta has a burgeoning high tech sector, including prominent technology companies iStockPhoto, Shareworks, Benevity, and Attabotics in Calgary, and Bioware and AltaML in Edmonton. Growth in Calgary\'s technology sector, particularly at Benevity, fueled predictions of a modest economic recovery in February 2020
| 482 |
Economy of Alberta
| 12 |
1,853 |
The **natural history of Africa** encompasses some of the well known megafauna of that continent.
Natural history is the study and description of organisms and natural objects, especially their origins, evolution, and interrelationships.
## Flora
The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Mediterranean, there are groves of orange and olive trees, evergreen oaks, cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus and fragrant tree-heaths.
South of the Atlas Mountains, the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Characteristic of the Sahara is the date palm, which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the acacia, from which gum arabic is obtained, is abundant.
The more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper Nile; and savanna interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions, the typical tree is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp character.
The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of hardwoods, two palms, *Elaeis guineensis* (oil palm) and *Raphia vinifera* (bamboo palm), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. *Bombax* or silk cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the India rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (*Chlorophora excelsa*), ebony, mahogany (*Khaya senegalensis*), *Oldfieldia* (*Oldfieldia africana*) and camwood (*Baphia nitida*). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or \"bush\" is extremely dense. In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey-bread tree or baobab (*Adansonia digitata*), doum palm (*Hyphaene*) and euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely separated places as Liberia and southern Ethiopia. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalaya and Indo-China.
In the swamp regions of north-east Africa, papyrus and associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourished in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest, save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the yellowwood (*Podocarpus elongatus*), stinkwood (*Ocotea*), sneezewood or Cape ebony (*Pteroxylon utile*) and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa, alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range.
| 555 |
Natural history of Africa
| 0 |
1,853 |
## Fauna
The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild donkey and four species of rhinoceros; and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyena, etc. The okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel, as a domestic animal, is especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes.
The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in South Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, Somaliland, etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900.
The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the ostrich and the secretarybird. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The secretarybird is common in the south. The weaver birds and their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the francolin and guineafowl. Many of the smaller birds, such as the sunbirds, bee-eaters, the parrots and kingfishers, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted for the brilliance of their feathers.
Of reptiles, the lizard and chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous snakes, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries.
The scorpion is abundant. Of insects, Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by means of mosquitoes is common. The tsetse fly, whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. It is found nowhere outside Africa
| 430 |
Natural history of Africa
| 1 |
1,857 |
**Approval voting** is a single-winner rated voting system where voters can approve of all the candidates as they like instead of choosing one. The method is designed to eliminate vote-splitting while keeping election administration simple and easy-to-count (requiring only a single score for each candidate). Approval voting has been used in both organizational and political elections`{{Which|date=March 2025}}`{=mediawiki} to improve representativeness and voter satisfaction.
Critics of approval voting have argued the simple ballot format is a disadvantage, as it forces a binary choice for each candidate (instead of the expressive grades of other rated voting rules).
## Effect on elections {#effect_on_elections}
Research by social choice theorists Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach found that approval voting would increase voter participation, prevent minor-party candidates from being spoilers, and reduce negative campaigning. Brams\' research concluded that approval can be expected to elect majority-preferred candidates in practical election scenarios, avoiding the center squeeze common to ranked-choice voting and primary elections.
One study showed that approval would not have chosen the same two winners as plurality voting (Jacques Chirac and Jean-Marie Le Pen) in the first round of the 2002 French presidential election; it instead would have chosen Chirac and Lionel Jospin as the top two candidates to proceed to the runoff.
In the actual election, Le Pen lost by an overwhelming margin in the runoff, 82.2% to 17.8%, a sign that the true top two candidates had not been found. In the approval voting survey primary, Chirac took first place with 36.7%, compared to Jospin at 32.9%. Le Pen, in that study, received 25.1% and so would not have made the cut to the second round. In the real primary election, the top three were Chirac, 19.9%, Le Pen, 16.9%, and Jospin, 16.2%. A study of various evaluative voting methods (approval and score voting) during the 2012 French presidential election showed that \"unifying\" candidates tended to do better, and polarizing candidates did worse, as compared to under plurality voting.
### Operational impacts {#operational_impacts}
- **Simple to tally---**Approval ballots can be counted by some existing machines designed for plurality elections, as ballots are cast, so that final tallies are immediately available after the election, with relatively few if any upgrades to equipment.
- **Just one round---**Approval can remove the need for multiple rounds of voting, such as a primary or a run-off, simplifying the election process.
- **Avoids overvotes---**Approval voting does not have the notion of overvotes, where voting for one more than allowed will cancel the entire opportunity to vote. In plurality elections, overvotes have to be reviewed and resolved if possible while in approval voting, no time is wasted on this activity.
| 439 |
Approval voting
| 0 |
1,857 |
## Use
### Current electoral use {#current_electoral_use}
#### Latvia
The Latvian parliament uses a modified version of approval voting within open list proportional representation, in which voters can cast either positive (approval) votes, negative votes or neither for any number of candidates.
#### United States {#united_states}
Missouri
In November 2020, St. Louis, Missouri, passed Proposition D with 70% voting to authorize a variant of approval (unified primary) for municipal offices. In 2021, the first mayoral election with approval voting saw Tishaura Jones and Cara Spencer move on to the general with 57% and 46% support. Lewis Reed and Andrew Jones were eliminated with 39% and 14% support, resulting in an average of 1.6 candidates supported by each voter in the 4 person race.
North Dakota
In 2018, Fargo, North Dakota, passed a local ballot initiative adopting approval for the city\'s local elections, becoming the first United States city and jurisdiction to adopt approval. Previously in 2015, a Fargo city commissioner election had suffered from six-way vote-splitting, resulting in a candidate winning with an unconvincing 22% plurality of the vote.
The first election was held June 9, 2020, selecting two city commissioners, from seven candidates on the ballot. Both winners received over 50% approval, with an average 2.3 approvals per ballot, and 62% of voters supported the change to approval in a poll. A poll by opponents of approval was conducted to test whether voters had in fact voted strategically according to the Burr dilemma. They found that 30% of voters who bullet voted did so for strategic reasons, while 57% did so because it was their sincere opinion. Fargo\'s second approval election took place in June 2022, for mayor and city commission. The incumbent mayor was re-elected from a field of 7 candidates, with an estimated 65% approval, with voters expressing 1.6 approvals per ballot, and the two commissioners were elected from a field of 15 candidates, with 3.1 approvals per ballot.
In 2023, the North Dakota legislature passed a bill which intended to ban approval voting. The bill was vetoed by governor Doug Burgum, citing the importance of \"home rule\" and allowing citizens control over their local government. The legislature attempted to overrule the veto but failed. In April 2025, Governor Kelly Armstrong signed a bill banning ranked-choice voting and approval voting in the state, ending the practice in Fargo.
| 391 |
Approval voting
| 1 |
1,857 |
## Use
### Use by organizations {#use_by_organizations}
Approval has been used in privately administered nomination contests by the Independent Party of Oregon in 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2016. Oregon is a fusion voting state, and the party has cross-nominated legislators and statewide officeholders using this method; its 2016 presidential preference primary did not identify a potential nominee due to no candidate earning more than 32% support. The party switched to using STAR voting in 2020.
It is also used in internal elections by the American Solidarity Party; the Green Parties of Texas and Ohio; the Libertarian National Committee; the Libertarian parties of Texas, Colorado, Arizona, and New York; Alliance 90/The Greens in Germany; and the Czech and German Pirate Party .
Approval has been adopted by several societies: the Society for Social Choice and Welfare (1992), Mathematical Association of America (1986), the American Mathematical Society, the Institute of Management Sciences (1987) (now the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences), the American Statistical Association (1987), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1987).
Steven Brams\' analysis of the 5-candidate 1987 Mathematical Association of America presidential election shows that 79% of voters cast a ballot for one candidate, 16% for 2 candidates, 5% for 3, and 1% for 4, with the winner earning the approval of 1,267 (32%) of 3,924 voters. The IEEE board in 2002 rescinded its decision to use approval. IEEE Executive Director Daniel J. Senese stated that approval was abandoned because \"few of our members were using it and it was felt that it was no longer needed.\"
Approval voting was used for Dartmouth Alumni Association elections for seats on the College Board of Trustees, but after some controversy it was replaced with traditional runoff elections by an alumni vote of 82% to 18% in 2009. Dartmouth students started to use approval voting to elect their student body president in 2011. In the first election, the winner secured the support of 41% of voters against several write-in candidates. In 2012, Suril Kantaria won with the support of 32% of the voters. In 2013, 2014 and 2016, the winners also earned the support of under 40% of the voters. Results reported in *The Dartmouth* show that in the 2014 and 2016 elections, more than 80 percent of voters approved of only one candidate. Students replaced approval voting with plurality voting before the 2017 elections.
### Historical
300px\|thumb\|Rows of secret approval vote boxes from early 1900s Greece, where the voter drops a marble to the right or left of the box, through a tube, one for each candidate standing Robert J. Weber coined the term \"Approval Voting\" in 1971. It was more fully published in 1978 by political scientist Steven Brams and mathematician Peter Fishburn.
Historically, several voting methods that incorporate aspects of approval have been used:
- Approval was used for papal conclaves between 1294 and 1621, with an average of about forty cardinals engaging in repeated rounds of voting until one candidate was listed on at least two-thirds of ballots.
- In the 13th through 18th centuries, the Republic of Venice elected the Doge of Venice using a multi-stage process that featured random selection and voting that allowed approval of multiple candidates.
- According to Steven J. Brams, approval was used for unspecified elections in 19th century England.
- The Secretary-General of the United Nations is elected in a multi-round straw poll process where, in each round, members of the Security Council may approve or disapprove of candidates, or decide to express no opinion. Disapproval by permanent members of the Security Council is similar to a veto. A candidate with no vetoes, at least nine votes, and more votes than any other candidate is considered to be likely to be supported by the Security Council in its formal recommendation vote.
- Approval was used in Greek legislative elections from 1864 to 1923, after which it was replaced with party-list proportional representation.
- Sequential proportional approval voting was used in Swedish elections in the early 20th century, prior to being replaced by party-list proportional representation.
The idea of approval was adopted by X. Hu and Lloyd Shapley in 2003 in studying authority distribution in organizations.
| 698 |
Approval voting
| 2 |
1,857 |
## Strategic voting {#strategic_voting}
### Overview
Approval voting allows voters to select all the candidates whom they consider to be reasonable choices.
*Strategic approval* differs from ranked voting (aka preferential voting) methods where voters are generally forced to *reverse* the preference order of two options, which if done on a larger scale can cause an unpopular candidate to win. Strategic approval, with more than two options, involves the voter changing their approval threshold. The voter decides which options to give the *same* rating, even if they were to have a preference order between them. This leaves a tactical concern any voter has for approving their second-favorite candidate, in the case that there are three or more candidates. Approving their second-favorite means the voter harms their favorite candidate\'s chance to win. Not approving their second-favorite means the voter helps the candidate they least desire to beat their second-favorite and perhaps win.
Approval technically allows for but is strategically immune to push-over and burying.
Bullet voting occurs when a voter approves *only* candidate \"a\" instead of *both* \"a\" and \"b\" for the reason that voting for \"b\" can cause \"a\" to lose. The voter would be satisfied with either \"a\" or \"b\" but has a moderate preference for \"a\". Were \"b\" to win, this hypothetical voter would still be satisfied. If supporters of both \"a\" and \"b\" do this, it could cause candidate \"c\" to win. This creates the \"chicken dilemma\", as supporters of \"a\" and \"b\" are playing chicken as to which will stop strategic voting first, before both of these candidates lose.
Compromising occurs when a voter approves an *additional* candidate who is otherwise considered unacceptable to the voter to prevent an even worse alternative from winning.
### Sincere voting {#sincere_voting}
Approval experts describe sincere votes as those \"\... that directly reflect the true preferences of a voter, i.e., that do not report preferences \'falsely.{{\'\"}} They also give a specific definition of a sincere approval vote in terms of the voter\'s ordinal preferences as being any vote that, if it votes for one candidate, it also votes for any more preferred candidate. This definition allows a sincere vote to treat strictly preferred candidates the same, ensuring that every voter has at least one sincere vote. The definition also allows a sincere vote to treat equally preferred candidates differently. When there are two or more candidates, every voter has at least three sincere approval votes to choose from. Two of those sincere approval votes do not distinguish between any of the candidates: vote for none of the candidates and vote for all of the candidates. When there are three or more candidates, every voter has more than one sincere approval vote that distinguishes between the candidates.
#### Examples
Based on the definition above, if there are four candidates, A, B, C, and D, and a voter has a strict preference order, preferring A to B to C to D, then the following are the voter\'s possible sincere approval votes:
- vote for A, B, C, and D
- vote for A, B, and C
- vote for A and B
- vote for A
- vote for no candidates
If the voter instead equally prefers B and C, while A is still the most preferred candidate and D is the least preferred candidate, then all of the above votes are sincere and the following combination is also a sincere vote:
- vote for A and C
The decision between the above ballots is equivalent to deciding an arbitrary \"approval cutoff.\" All candidates preferred to the cutoff are approved, all candidates less preferred are not approved, and any candidates equal to the cutoff may be approved or not arbitrarily.
| 617 |
Approval voting
| 3 |
1,857 |
## Strategic voting {#strategic_voting}
### Sincere strategy with ordinal preferences {#sincere_strategy_with_ordinal_preferences}
A sincere voter with multiple options for voting sincerely still has to choose which sincere vote to use. Voting strategy is a way to make that choice, in which case strategic approval includes sincere voting, rather than being an alternative to it. This differs from other voting systems that typically have a unique sincere vote for a voter.
When there are three or more candidates, the winner of an approval election can change, depending on which sincere votes are used. In some cases, approval can sincerely elect any one of the candidates, including a Condorcet winner and a Condorcet loser, without the voter preferences changing. To the extent that electing a Condorcet winner and not electing a Condorcet loser is considered desirable outcomes for a voting system, approval can be considered vulnerable to sincere, strategic voting. In one sense, conditions where this can happen are robust and are not isolated cases. On the other hand, the variety of possible outcomes has also been portrayed as a virtue of approval, representing the flexibility and responsiveness of approval, not just to voter ordinal preferences, but cardinal utilities as well.
#### Dichotomous preferences {#dichotomous_preferences}
Approval avoids the issue of multiple sincere votes in special cases when voters have dichotomous preferences. For a voter with dichotomous preferences, approval is strategyproof. When all voters have dichotomous preferences and vote the sincere, strategy-proof vote, approval is guaranteed to elect a Condorcet winner. However, having dichotomous preferences when there are three or more candidates is not typical. It is an unlikely situation for all voters to have dichotomous preferences when there are more than a few voters.
Having dichotomous preferences means that a voter has bi-level preferences for the candidates. All of the candidates are divided into two groups such that the voter is indifferent between any two candidates in the same group and any candidate in the top-level group is preferred to any candidate in the bottom-level group. A voter that has strict preferences between three candidates---prefers A to B and B to C---does not have dichotomous preferences.
Being strategy-proof for a voter means that there is a unique way for the voter to vote that is a strategically best way to vote, regardless of how others vote. In approval, the strategy-proof vote, if it exists, is a sincere vote.
#### Approval threshold {#approval_threshold}
Another way to deal with multiple sincere votes is to augment the ordinal preference model with an approval or acceptance threshold. An approval threshold divides all of the candidates into two sets, those the voter approves of and those the voter does not approve of. A voter can approve of more than one candidate and still prefer one approved candidate to another approved candidate. Acceptance thresholds are similar. With such a threshold, a voter simply votes for every candidate that meets or exceeds the threshold.
With threshold voting, it is still possible to not elect the Condorcet winner and instead elect the Condorcet loser when they both exist. However, according to Steven Brams, this represents a strength rather than a weakness of approval. Without providing specifics, he argues that the pragmatic judgments of voters about which candidates are acceptable should take precedence over the Condorcet criterion and other social choice criteria.
| 550 |
Approval voting
| 4 |
1,857 |
## Strategic voting {#strategic_voting}
### Strategy with cardinal utilities {#strategy_with_cardinal_utilities}
Voting strategy under approval is guided by two competing features of approval. On the one hand, approval fails the later-no-harm criterion, so voting for a candidate can cause that candidate to win instead of a candidate more preferred by that voter. On the other hand, approval satisfies the monotonicity criterion, so not voting for a candidate can never help that candidate win, but can cause that candidate to lose to a less preferred candidate. Either way, the voter can risk getting a less preferred election winner. A voter can balance the risk-benefit trade-offs by considering the voter\'s cardinal utilities, particularly via the von Neumann--Morgenstern utility theorem, and the probabilities of how others vote.
A rational voter model described by Myerson and Weber specifies an approval strategy that votes for those candidates that have a positive prospective rating. This strategy is optimal in the sense that it maximizes the voter\'s expected utility, subject to the constraints of the model and provided the number of other voters is sufficiently large.
An optimal approval vote always votes for the most preferred candidate and not for the least preferred candidate, which is a dominant strategy. An optimal vote can require supporting one candidate and not voting for a more preferred candidate if there 4 candidates or more, e.g. the third and fourth choices are correlated to gain or lose decisive votes together; however, such situations are inherently unstable, suggesting such strategy should be rare.
Other strategies are also available and coincide with the optimal strategy in special situations. For example:
- Vote for the candidates that have above average utility. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if the voter thinks that all pairwise ties are equally likely.
- Vote for any candidate that is more preferred than the expected winner and also vote for the expected winner if the expected winner is more preferred than the expected runner-up. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if there are three or fewer candidates or if the pivot probability for a tie between the expected winner and expected runner-up is sufficiently large compared to the other pivot probabilities. This strategy, if used by all voters, implies at equilibrium the election of the Condorcet winner whenever it exists.
- Vote for the most preferred candidate only. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy when the best candidate is either much better than all others (i.e. is the only one with a positive expected value).
- If all voters are rational and cast a strategically optimal vote based on a common knowledge of how all other voters vote except for small-probability, statistically independent errors, then the winner will be the Condorcet winner, if one exists.
| 458 |
Approval voting
| 5 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.